Smallpox Safari

Feeling Inspired

2009-11-11T11:37:00.001-08:00

Hello Old Friends!

I just read an article in the New York Times and thought of you all, so I thought I'd post it, even though no one is actually reading this blog anymore.....

The title: China's Tough Measures on Flu Appear to be Effective
The blurb: They quarantined foreigners and it worked! H1N1 is being contained!....it reminds me of Atlantic Storm and Germany's threat to Poland that we'd quarantine any Polish outsiders who came into Germany. I guess the plan would have worked.
: o )

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/world/asia/12chinaflu.html?_r=1&hp

Book Review : The Death of a Disease

2009-09-21T22:41:00.001-07:00

The Death of a Disease DA Henderson
I really enjoyed reading this book by DA Henderson because it was the tale being told by an insider, whereas some of the other books we read for the class were more of third person accounts. I never knew one person could have such an impact on a movement as great as the smallpox eradication until I read this book, as well as Demon in the Freezer. I really enjoyed reading DA Henderson’s book, not only for that reason, but also because of his passion for eradicating smallpox. I personally do not know whether I believe that the stocks of smallpox should be destroyed, but I do know that I would agree with Henderson not wanting to keep the stocks right after the end of the eradication. I feel that his stance on this subject is really important because he was actually on the field and knew what it was like to have to struggle to give all of those vaccinations, so in a sense I feel that people should give his opinion, as well as those of people who worked along with him, a greater weight in determining whether the stocks should be kept…that is if they actually ever decide to make a decision and don’t keep pushing the dates back.
One part that I do have to disagree with Henderson on though, is whether or not eradicating another disease will be possible. While he does not think so, I have to be optimistic towards the fact. While I may be less credible because I have never actually been on the site during any eradication process, I think science has developed in such a way that eradication of certain diseases is becoming more and more possible. Take for example polio and guinea-worm disease, they have both come a long way towards being eradicated and while it may take hard work and great dedication, I think successes is likely.

Book Review : Biohazard

2009-09-21T22:40:00.001-07:00

Biohazard Ken Alibek
I LOVED THIS BOOK! I never knew so much was going on in the world until I started reading this book. Before reading Ken Alibek’s take on biological weapons, I would never have guessed that people would actually stoop so low as to create weapons out of very devastating diseases. This book was semi-frightening to me because I have personally suffered from a disease that once caused epidemics, so it took me a while to grasp the idea that people would purposefully cause others to become ill. The fact that the Soviet Union’s biological weapons program was so intensive and detailed was also a bit frightening to me.
Ken Alibek put so much detail into his writing, that I nearly forgot I was reading a book at times. I found it interesting that Alibek also put so much detail about society in the Soviet Union into his book, including family structure, social structure, and a lot of politics. I like how he not only talked about the intensive weapons program but also what was going on in the world at the time. Now, looking back at the book after having experienced our amazing soco class, I found it extremely interesting that Steve Block does not trust Alibek. While he had some convincing points, about Alibek using his experiences to make a living and feeding people stories, it makes me question the authenticity of Biohazard, and just anything that Alibek may have told the US Government at all. However, overall I really enjoyed the book and thought it created a very good introduction to biological weapons and the great variety of ways that science can be used.

Book Review : Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-21T22:39:00.000-07:00

Demon in the Freezer Richard Preston
This book was ultimately extremely captivating! Before reading this book, I was very and did not know what I had gotten myself into by signing up for this SoCo (mainly because of the amount of books that we were assigned). However as soon as I started reading the book, I was unable to put it down! The style with which Preston writes makes the book seem a lot less like it is about actual real life events, and it also makes the book seem a lot deeper than just a statement of a timeline of events.
One of the more confusing parts of the book, in my opinion, was the fact that the book started out as more of a description of a case of anthrax. While reading the book, I never felt like Preston ever really went back to the original story line and completed it. Otherwise, the book created a well depicted, generalized storyline of smallpox, its history, and its eradication. I felt like reading this book was definitely a better introduction to smallpox than if I was just given straight facts.
One of the most interesting parts of the book to me was the part about the eradication. Before signing up for this class, I had heard of smallpox, but I had never really considered what exactly happened to it or felt the urge to look into whether it was still prevalent in today’s world. However, after reading this book, an entire world of eradication and the possibilities of eradicating other diseases were opened up to me. Overall I really enjoyed this book, and I felt like it made me very excited for soco.

Review-- Assessment of Future Scientific Needs for Live Variola Virus

2009-09-21T01:18:00.000-07:00

In 1999, the government (specifically the U.S. Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) requested that the Institute of Medicine convene an independent scientific panel to investigate future scientific needs for live variola virus. That committee, the “Committee on the Assessment of Future Needs for Variola (Smallpox) Virus,” produced a report “The Assessment of Future Scientific Needs for Live Variola Virus” chronicling their conclusions. The report outlines six major scientific needs for the smallpox virus, the first and most convincing being the need for further research into the creation of novel vaccines fit for immunocompromised populations.

The assessment is particularly interesting in light of the World Health Organization’s upcoming debate as to whether or not to retain the world’s existing stocks of live variola virus. Dr. Ann Arvin (Stanford University School of Medicine), who served on the committee both in 1999 and on a recent committee to revisit the issue, commented on the differences between the two assessments, claiming that the 2009 study was far less political than charged debates of 1999. I found this to be interesting, as both reports were intended to be (and appear to be) completely independent—obviously being unbiased is tough, even in science.

The 1999 assessment is well written, providing a clear outline of the major scientific motives for the retention of variola stocks, and well as a broad overview of smallpox epidemiology, eradication, and bioterrorism threat. It is informative and accessible to the general public, and although it is very technical, I did enjoy reading it.

The Avian Flu of 1957: Ghost of What's to Come

2009-09-21T01:17:00.000-07:00

Throughout our course, we have repeatedly referenced the flu epidemic of 1918-1919 as a lesson for the upcoming swine flu pandemic. We never fully examined the similarities between H1N1 and the Avian Flu of 1957. After reading an article about it in The Washington Post, I am convinced that the epidemic of 1957 provides valuable lessons for the trajectory of swine flu and how to handle it.

The Avian Flu (H2N2) broke out during the normally flu-free summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and attacked many group-living situations such as summer camps and military bases. The current strain infected over 80 summer camps during the summer. Like H1N1, the 1957 virus had an overwhelming effect on younger people as compared to the elderly population that flu normally effects. Additionally, the 1957 Avian Flu was briefly harsh but rarely fatal, as H1N1 has thus far. As the article details, these similarities suggest that the pandemic of 1957 may be an instructive model for what is to come with H1N1.

Overall, the 1957 pandemic created 60,000 “excess deaths” in the U.S, which would be the equivalent of 107,000 people today. This is a substantial amount, and with such large similarities between the two epidemics, the Avian Flu of 1957 should be studied in order to prepare for the major outbreak of H1N1.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/24/AR2009082402431_4.html?sid=ST2009082401811

Review-- The Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-21T01:16:00.000-07:00

The first two books that I read for Smallpox Safari, Smallpox—The Death of a Disease and Scourge, were both fascinating and incredibly informative. Looking back, however, I realize that it is Richard Preston’s The Demon in the Freezer that is the perfect introduction to smallpox. First, Preston’s story is informative, as he gives a detailed overview of the history and eradication of smallpox, along with the potential future threats of the disease. Second, the subject matter is timely. As Preston weaves the story through both smallpox and anthrax, he taps into the fears of the reader; both in 2002 soon after when the anthrax attacks occurred and in 2009 in a world where science and military are growing ever more connected. (Although I do agree that the presence of anthrax in the storyline did unnecessarily complicate the book). Finally, The Demon in the Freezer is simply exciting, due to the subject and the author’s gift for impressive storytelling.

Herein lies the beauty of The Demon in the Freezer, in its ability to combine a significant amount of academic information with an exhilarating literary adventure. The excitement is only compounded by the reality that Preston presents. Like most readers, Preston’s concluding words struck me: “We could eradicate smallpox from nature, but we could not uproot the virus from the human heart.” The Demon in the Freezer provides perfectly both the introductory information and the incentive to dive into the study of smallpox.

Swine Flu Vaccine and Pregnancy

2009-09-21T00:49:00.000-07:00

There are currently very many questions about just how effective the new H1N1 vaccine will be, seeing as how it has not yet been effectively been tested and it is a new vaccine for a fairly new illness. One of the rising areas of speculation concerns just how effective this vaccine will be and how many side effects it will have in pregnant women. Pregnant women already have so many concerns and precautions to take to assure they have a safe and healthy pregnancy in the first place, that the issue of this new H1N1 vaccine is only making matters more complicated. While it may seem that the vaccine is effective, there has yet to be published results stating what effects the vaccine has on pregnant women and their unborn children: and as a result there is currently a state of confusion about what these women should do.

According to NPR's Health Correspondent Richard Knox, " The swine flu vaccines are not specifically approved for pregnant women. But neither are ordinary seasonal flu vaccines. The reason, says FDA, is that the agency doesn't specifically approve most adult drugs for categories of adults, such as pregnant adults. If you look at the fine print on seasonal flu vaccine labels, you'll see language like this: 'It is not known whether (this vaccine) can cause fetal harm when administered to a pregnant woman or can affect reproduction capacity. (This vaccine) should be given to a pregnant woman only if clearly needed.' This doesn't sound very reassuring, and it may be one reason why many obstetricians have not urged their pregnant patients to get seasonal flu vaccines."

While the CDC normally recommends that pregnant women get the seasonal flu shot, the fact of the matter is that only about 15% of pregnant women get it yearly, which is probably why this year the CDC is strongly recommending that they receive this H1N1 vaccine.

Personally, I do not know whether recommending, let alone strongly recommending, these women to receive a vaccine which has yet to be effectively tested on women during their pregnancies is a good idea. There are qualms about the effectiveness of the vaccine in itself, and not knowing whether it could cause a fatal side effect in women who are pregnant makes a logical argument to me that it should not be strongly recommended until more results are put out. But hey, that's just the opinion of a young college student who has yet to go through medical school.

http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2009/09/taking_a_pregnant_pause_on_flu.html

Here's a video from CNN that concerns the new H1N1 vaccine and Pregnancy
http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/health/2009/09/18/dcl.ec.pregnant.n1h1.cnn

Cancer medication could cause...Cancer??

2009-09-21T00:32:00.000-07:00

According to this article on CNN.com, many women who are at high risk of getting breast cancer often take medications. Nothing seems odd about that right? Well the interesting thing is, some of these medications that women are taking to prevent cancer could have side effects such as "blood clots, cataracts, and cancer of the uterine lining." How encouraging is it that a medication you would use to prevent something as horrible as cancer could lead you to have a different type of cancer?! While we've learned that all drugs have their side effects, this article encourages weighing the pros and cons of taking drugs such as "tamoxifen or the osteoporosis drug raloxifene."

According to the chair of the American Cancer Society's breast cancer advisory committee, Dr. Christy Russell, the more prevalent issue may be that not enough of the 2% of women who are at high risk for breast cancer are taking drugs to prevent it. Dr. Russell states that there is a certain level of difficulty in convincing the current culture of the importance of taking drugs to treat an illness that they do not yet have. While it may seem logical, would you actually take medicine with such varied side effects to treat something you were not yet diagnosed with?? I am not sure that I would...

http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/09/17/breast.cancer.drugs/index.html

Masks...Effective or Not??

2009-09-21T00:13:00.000-07:00

We talked alot during our soco about masks, and even had Mark Liao come in to demonstrate and explain the effectiveness of masks. According to this article in the LA times, health care officials working with patients with swine flu should wear N95 masks and not surgical masks. The Institute of Medicine says that surgical masks are much more loose fitting and provide less protection against small vapor particles that could potentially carry swine flu than N95 masks. There are some arguments going around about whether masks are actually worth the costs, but so far health care officials are being encouraged to use N95 masks in these situations

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/booster_shots/2009/09/swine-flu-healthcare-workers-should-wear-n95-masks-iom-says.html

Interestingly enough, on this website, according to Vancouver's Chief Medical Health Officer, surgical masks may not work to prevent the spread of swine flu. This consensus is a result of the idea that the particles containing the virus will be spread more easily as people touch the mask to remove it and then proceed to touch their face, etc. Vancouver's Chief Medical Health Officer is also advising parents against sending their children to school wearing masks, claiming that this will increase their chances of getting sick rather than decreasing them.

http://www.news1130.com/news/local/more.jsp?content=20090918_151320_8036

Lesson to be learned, Mark Liao was right! N95 masks are most effective, and if you are going to spend money on a mask, why not spend it on the type that actually works!

More HPV Virus Infections??

2009-09-20T23:59:00.000-07:00

Apparently more health officials are seeing a rise in girls and young women who have the HPV virus. This HPV virus (as we've talked about in class) is linked to cervical cancer as well as other illnesses. Just to play devil's advocate...could this rise in the number of women with HPV be linked to the rise in women receiving the HPV vaccine? While I know that it is unlikely, watching the video in the news report on this website makes me question why there are more cases of HPV being discovered in women 18-20 years of age. Scary thought : cervical cancer is the 5th most deadly cancer among women. Health officials say that spreading the message about the importance of getting this vaccine is one of the greatest ways to prevent cervical cancer that could have been prevented.

http://www.newschannel10.com/Global/story.asp?S=11153426

Book Review : Jenner's Publication on Vaccination against smallpox

2009-09-20T22:47:00.001-07:00

This book is a useful compilation of Jenner’s work concerning inoculation against smallpox. With Jenner’s three articles is one place you easily see how he developed his ideas and tested his observations surrounding smallpox. It is important to note that the scientific approach to thinking that is evident in these pages was somewhat of an anomaly in this 18^th century era. Jenner provides a lot of evidence to support his theories connecting cowpox and smallpox. He describes in sufficient detail for the numerous case studies which he performed. Although it is a scientific set of papers, it reads like a simple, logical story unlike today’s scientific literature laden with specific jargon. In addition to the scientific aspect, Jenner also finds ways to make reference to those who are skeptical of his work. It is interesting to have a glimpse into the mind of a man who developed a novel way to prevent the “severest scourge of the human race”. Jenner seems to have had an inkling about the magnitude of his work as he was “ encouraged by the hope of its becoming essentially beneficial to mankind.” For anyone studying medical or scientific history, these original texts are a must read as the development of vaccines is key to preventative medicine today.

Stanford/Bay Area/College and Swine Flu??

2009-09-20T19:40:00.001-07:00

Disclaimer : So apparently I saved a bunch of my blog posts as drafts and never published them because I guess I got distracted by something else?...and they really aren't relevant now [or were covered by some of you all...so excuse the mass posts by me that are to come in the next few hours :(]

Anyways, so it's not just Vaden that is preparing for the impending doom that Swine Flu will bring about on college campuses. One of the major reasons why germs are so easily spread around campuses across the country is because college students are always in situations of close contact or close proximity. The parties, drinking, and beer pong doesn't necessarily help prevent the spread of germs and bacteria. Currently, San Jose State University is planning on handing out disposable thermometers to fraternities and sororities, and has also made provisions that in the case that swine flu does break out, there will be a house designated specifically for people who are sick.

According to Mercury News, "More than 80 percent of the nation's colleges and universities tracking swine flu cases have reported infected students, up from 73 percent of all schools the previous week, according to the American College Health Association. Most cases are mild, running their course in one week. But it has claimed the lives of two college students so far, one at Cornell University in New York and another at Troy University in Alabama." These are scary statistics! Will our campus be next? What will Stanford do if so many people on campus get swine flu that some form of housing needs to be designated for them?

Berkeley (no matter how great the rivalry between us is) has unfortunately felt the pangs of swine flu infections and reported between 40-50 cases that appeared to be like influenza weekly. Unfortunately for us, swine flu aims more at young adults and children rather than older generations...And all of this constant close contact (in-between classes, shared bathrooms, dining halls, dorm rooms, etc.) is probably swine flu's best friend when it comes to making more people sick.

Hopefully swine flu doesn't hit Stanford as hard as it has hit some other schools. It would be great if there never turned out to be a single case of swine flu, but seeing the statistics and how many other universities have come down with cases, it is highly unlikely that the "angel of swine flu" will pass over our home sweet Stanford.

http://www.mercurynews.com/valley/ci_13382463

Stanford testing for H1N1 vaccine & FREE seasonal flu vaccine at Vaden

2009-09-19T23:55:00.000-07:00

Hey Pox Stars! If there’s any practicable lesson we could have taken from Bob’s class (aside from the skillful timing and technique it takes to jump in the air with 15 other people), it was that vaccines are a lifesaver. If you haven’t received a seasonal flu vaccine yet, there is no excuse because Stanford will be giving away FREE vaccines to employees and students. I saw this on the Vaden website, and I had to tell all of you!

http://vaden.stanford.edu/medical/index.html#flu

And now, for my final New and Hot . . .

After Roz Diane Lasker’s simulation and Bob’s re-simulation on the “what-ifs” of a biological attack, I thought that these scenarios could be brought down to earth a bit more. As I see it with the H1N1 pandemic, these scenarios are already happening. There are some definite parallels between some of the suggestions our class gave to solving the hypothetical biological outbreak and the H1N1 pandemic happening in real time.

At Stanford Medical School, trials have been underway to test the H1N1 influenza vaccine. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is sponsoring the phase-2 trial at six sites around the country. At Stanford, there is a call for 130 volunteers, with 2/3 of this number in the 18-64 age category (I believe our very own Josh Wong is among this group!) and the rest from 65+ above.

The government response stemming from the NIH to disperse resources and mobilize university, intellectual, and volunteer efforts is a common theme among any outbreaks, viral or biological.

As we go back to school soon, the spread of the H1N1 flu strain is expected to diffuse itself among the school-age population more as we have seen happening at several universities. And as much as our class talked about mass vaccination vs. ring containment, decisions like these are happening at this very moment! The federal government is waiting to hear from trials already under way before making a final decision about whether to proceed with a large-scale national immunization program.

But there’s a problem . . .

Stanford Medical School reports: “The government, which had hoped to have 120 million doses of the H1N1 vaccine on hand by Oct. 15, announced on Aug. 18 that, because of delays in the manufacturing process, it now expects only 45 million doses to be available by then.”

Does this predicament remind anybody of the same problem us delegates faced during Atlantic storm? A huge debate we had was whether the smallpox vaccine should be diluted or not. This controversy may be placated with some of the experiments taking place at Stanford Medical School. Trial is underway for the introduction of a novel vaccine that contain an adjuvant: “a substance that stimulates the immune system so that it attacks the virus more vigorously.” With the use of the adjuvant, it may be possible that the dose of vaccine could be lowered, allowing for more people to be immunized.

Hopefully, this will be a great breakthrough to help placate any tense relations forming between Germany and Poland. Way-to-go for friendly mediating efforts from the nearby Sweden!

http://med.stanford.edu/ism/2009/august/flu-trial.html

How to Improve Vaccines

2009-09-19T16:52:00.000-07:00

How can scientists engineer a disabled vaccine to make it as potent as a “live” vaccine but as safe as a “killed” vaccine?

Disabled viruses have been effective in the production of vaccines for smallpox and polio. However, for non-viral diseases like tuberculosis and malaria, the immune system is able to recognize that the viruses in these vaccines are disabled, and hence, the immune system will not trigger the anticipated antibody response.

The co-author of a study that suggests a solution to this problem, Daniel Portnoy, a UC Berkeley professor of molecular and cell biology and of public health, explains, “What this says is that the immune system knows the difference between a live bug that's virulent and a dead one that is harmless." Furthermore, Portnoy says that not only is there no immune response, immunity is also suppressed.

To solve this problem, the study suggests getting the microbes to act as if they’re alive. The strategy is to select new bacterial strains that induce the right kind of immune response.

The pathogen seems to take on a personality and these mannerisms within the cell affect how the immune system will respond — “where it goes in the cell, what pathways it interferes with, and how disruptive it is.” A vaccine against these pathogens would need to have an effect of inducing T cell response, a condition that does not happen with currently available vaccines.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090904071654.htm

(Biochemistry . . . so awesome!)

Review: Smallpox—The Death of a Disease

2009-09-19T15:22:00.000-07:00

Flash back three months ago towards the beginning of the summer, I was sitting in my bedroom, staring at the nine books that laid on my floor. I was deliberating too much intensely about which book I should crack first and how I would assemble a reading chronology that would introduce to me the various facets of smallpox in the best order possible. One by one, I began shuffling through the pages, reading the introduction and first chapter of each book. By the time I got to D.A. Henderson’s “Smallpox—The Death of a Disease,” I knew that this was the book to start me off on my summer of smallpox.

The book combines the elements of all our other reading in a rounded way. It begins with the historic scourge of smallpox (Pox Americana, Rotting Face, Plagues and People), discusses 20^th century bureaucratic battles, details the eradication, and terrifies readers about past and impending biological disasters (Scourge, Biohazard, The Demon in the Freezer).

I was so impressed by DA Henderson. This was the person who had made it happen and he was able to share his story, thanks to a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation that encourages scientists and public servants to write to the world . Reading Henderson’s book made me reconsider to what purpose was I working for a college degree. At that time in my life, I had thought I wanted to settle on a path towards an MD/MPH. It turns out that Henderson didn’t even care much for degrees and professional background in assembling a team. He writes, “[The] staff members made up for a lack of formal public health training with intelligence, common sense, flexibility, and imagination.” There was John Wickett, the mathematics major and ski bum who started in computer programming with the smallpox team, and then taught himself about WHO bureaucracy and smallpox, sticking around for 18 more years. After following Henderson’s tales about his team members, I realized that academic pedigree had no bearing for employment in the fields of these 3^rd world countries. What mattered were characteristics like flexibility, persistence, innate competence, and a pinch of creativity.

This book is a great example that illustrates some of the lessons we have learnt during our SoCo about risk taking and being open to the serendipitous moments that passes by in life (Thanks, Bob!) . The smallpox eradication job fell to a person who felt he was overwhelmingly under-qualified for such a role, yet who took that risk anyways and would uproot his family to Geneva for ten years. While Henderson’s telling of the eradication plan did get redundant after descriptions about country-hopping from within Asia to Africa to South America, I think the greatest element to pull from the book is learning from the life of Henderson himself and the decisions and sacrifices he had to make to follow his gut feeling that anything is possible, including smallpox eradication.

Dr. D. A. Henderson in Ethiopia, administering a smallpox vaccination, ca. 1972

My Thoughts on Smallpox Safari

2009-09-18T17:26:00.003-07:00

Smallpox, Smallpox, and more smallpox. When someone asks me what my SOCO is about, that is what I say. But then I launch into a 15 minute description of all the cool things we do surrounding this subject. Even 15 minutes does not do justice to probably the best 3week class I've ever taken. And of course, its not all about what the class was about. It includes the teacher, the SCAs and the fellow students. It is impossible to describe this all in one word. Bob: engaging, eccentric, awesome, brainiac, creative, unique; i mean, what other teacher of yours has written a poem about a virus? Takes a jumping picture wherever he goes, domestic or abroad? Puts on skits with his SCAs dressed up as cows and death reaper? Stars in student's musical videos? Takes pictures of a BBC crew? Asks extremely thought provoking questions? Gives some of the best advice I've received? And relates to everyone's interests? Manages to keep our interests alive even after two weeks of 10-4/6 hr school days? That is rare to come by. What other SCA is willing to talk continually and repetitively talk about his/her experiences? Dress up as a cow and death reaper? Stalk important people so that they can come talk to us? Offer to help us in our journey as students? Is excited that he/she will still be seeing us even after SOCO is over? Gives up an entire three weeks of summer and even more in planning in order to make sure that we get the best out of the class? Try their best to be in class with us despite their busy schedules? Has the best sense of humor? Get sooo excited about a simulation in which they're not even participating? I could go on and on but my point here is that Bob, Aaron, Josh and Lauren have been the best teachers i've ever had; and the best thing is that I feel I have made four new awesome friends. I am sure everyone agrees with me in saying that this class has been the best combination of learning and having fun that most of us have had.
Now to talk about the class: as it was the best combination of alot of learning and alot of fun, I am now interested in something I never considered before; this class just turned on a spark in me that I never new was there. Now I have a sincere interest in epidemiology and virology; I have absorbed so much information and the best thing is that this class, through Bob and the SCAs brought everything together. Everything that I remembered from high school biology and a class on biotech. Whether it was plasmids or vectors, everything just clicked. I really enjoyed this class. I cherish the experiences: Jasper Ridge, ATLANTIC STORM, GSID and Don Francis, jumping pictures, the movies,OUR movie, the Baylands(or should I say the Palo Alto landfill haha), RAMEN... It was over all a great experience in all ways possible. I came expected to be bombarded with more smallpox facts and I left bombarded(in a great way) but not with only smallpox information but with lots of great advice, good memories. I feel more aknowledged three weeks later. They really care about our success in school and in life. What a good feeling!
I don't mean to sound toady and if thats how it comes across, then what I am really thinking can't be expressed in good words, at least not by me and my ENL(english as an nth language) skills. It has been great to meet my fellow classmates of course because you guys are what helped make the class more exciting. I can't think of anyone else I would have wanted to have in this class you but you guys. It was so fun, I really actually enjoyed myself. It was a class, but it didn't really feel like a class (most of the time anyway), especially when we all loosened up after a couple of days. It was great. I am sure I will see all of you at some point in the future. Keep it real and have a great time this year, I for one am excited for this year (not for classes, but they are a part of the process). Stay well and try not to get that viral infection!!
Sincerely,
Aimee

Water Shortages in Kenya Lead to Disease Outbreaks

2009-09-18T17:26:00.001-07:00

There have been reports of polio, measles and cholera outbreaks in northen Kenya as a result of water shortage caused by drought and an increase in the number of Somali refugees in the east. There has been a slight increase in polio and measles cases. Since February, 18 polio cases have been reported in Turkana and it is believed that the virus was imported from Sudan due to rampant cross-border motility. 18 cases are significant because before the first reported case, Kenya had lasted reported a polio case over 20 years ago. And in a neighboring refugee camp, three measles cases have been reported. In another refugee camp, 62 cases of measles have been reported and as a result, a nationwide vaccination campaign is going to begin September 19. There has also been an outbreak of cholera. So far 600 cholera cases have been reported in Turkana. Cholera, like botulism, is an infectious gastroenteritis caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholera, which produce a cholera toxin. It is transmitted through eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the bacteria from other cholera patients. SO far, thirteen people have died but that is only counting those deaths that have been reported. The concern is that the residents of a northern Kenyan town called Turkana are drinking contaminated water from a nearby lake. Among other reasons, the water is partly contaminated because the town has low latrine cover, leading to the improper disposal of waste.
As unimportant as this might seem to some of you, it shows the obstacles that the current measles and polio eradication campaigns are experiencing. Whether it is due to natural disasters such as drought or floods or human induced disasters such as wars, it is causing unexpected setbacks. I don’t think Lemaat listed Kenya as one of the three countries remaining with polio, in which case there are now four countries and the number might continue to rise as a result of the movement of refugees and the occurrence of natural disasters.

Review: Smallpox, Death of a Disease

2009-09-18T11:35:00.001-07:00

Henderson takes one of the monumental achievements in disease history and makes it readily accessible to the general public in a very fascinating portrayal of the eradication of smallpox.

What strikes me most about Henderson's perspective is how candid he is about his experience as head of the eradication. He is characteristically open about his efforts, often revealing the actual disease to be less of a problem than dealing with his superiors. If he makes anything obnoxiously clear, it's that when working on a global project one must choose the people to work with and ignore the calls of everyone else to get something done. The ins and outs of the WHO bureaucracy are very clearly present throughout the entire book, necessitating a search for loopholes that could only be carried out by our very cheeky, irreverent author. It's difficult not to admire his no-nonsense approach.

The book itself quickly documents how Henderson serendipitously was given the position that would define his career and then jumps into eradication. He goes through in minute, yet engaging detail the evolving strategy needed to tackle such a beast with little more than a picture of a dude with smallpox, freeze-dried vaccine, and a bifurcated needle. The only thing that I would chance criticizing in his book would be the slight repetitiveness of some of the chapters. While I'm sure the actual process was much more complicated, the ring-vaccination technique coupled with stringent surveillance seemed to be the general gist of more than half of the discussed regions, with slight adaptations for weather and political conditions in the remaining situations.

Even so, for one who is interested in the topic, I can't think of a better source than Henderson. The last few pages are a very nice capstone to the book, collecting what he gathered from his experiences to formulate his own strong opinion on where we should go from here. Definitely worth the read if you like poxy stuff.

Book Review: The Death of Smallpox

2009-09-18T11:08:00.002-07:00

DA Henderson’s personal account of the Smallpox Eradiation Program is filled with well researched, comprehensive detail that gives the full scope of the eradication program in its full capacity. He dutifully describes all the facets of the program, including the political, social, cultural, religious and economical issues that surrounded the eradication program as well as the disease itself. And he gives his account with a lot of passion and commitment to the message he is relying.
One of the things I found most intriguing about DA Henderson’s book is his detailed description of the struggles and difficulties he faced while dealing with the World Health Organization. This detailed mostly with the political facet of the eradication, as this program was global and required the participation of nearly every single country because if one was affected, everybody else was at risk. And so, it is with disbelief that we read about the miles of bureaucracy that he had to go around in order to succeed even though he was doing everyone a big favor, whether or not they were involved. Such an account serves to show that sometimes, one must break the rules or disagree with the big players even though it might mean making one’s life ten times more difficult. It is in facing obstacles such as these that the true leaders are exposed.
It also serves to illustrate that not everyone in charge has the best interest of others at heart. I was particularly disappointed by director Candau of the WHO and others like him, who did nothing to help or did everything to discourage the continuation of the program. If its people like these who are in charge of an organization, such as the WHO, that is supposed to advocate and fight for those who have no voices, then we need many more DA Hendersons, Don Francis’s, and others if we are to make any more magnificent advances in humanity’s fight against diseases.

Review: The Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-18T11:08:00.001-07:00

Richard Preston has great story telling skills. He is so talented that when you're reading one of his books, you can actually picture what is going on, whether or not what happen was in your lifetime is regardless. Now, someone will say, that the idea of storytelling is making a person feel like they're living the story. Well, Richard Preston definitely does not fall short of this. In fact, he goes above and beyond given the generous amount of information at his hands. He manages to organize and connect every detail trying to leave nothing out. I saw this in his other great science nonfiction book, The Hot Zone, where he details the outbreaks of several hemorrhagic fevers in several places around the over a forty year timeline. In The Demon in the Freezer, he has tons of more information: over a hundred years’ worth, maybe even more. Yet he tells its like a story and not like a long boring historical documentary.
One of my favorite things about this and his other books, is how it combines history, virology, humanity, compassion and conflict in only 283 pages. Granted, there is more to the story but he briefly but coherently touches upon it all: from the launch and progress of the eradication program to Soviet defectors, the retention vs. destruction fight, the description of what occurred during the 2001 anthrax terror scares, research at major US labs like Fort Detrick and more.
And amidst all this talk about viruses and bioterrorism, he manages to insert personal anecdotes about several people, appealing to the human side while grasping our attention. One of my favorite quotes comes at the end when he says:
"We will never find an explanation…for the love that drove the doctors to bring smallpox to an end. Yet after all they had done, we still held smallpox in our hands, with a grip of death that would never let it go. All I knew was that the dream of total Eradication had failed. The virus’s last strategy of survival was to bewitch its host and become a source of power. We could eradicate smallpox from nature, but we could not uproot the virus from the human heart."
In a personal display of great thought provoking insight, Preston leaves us thinking about what should or should not be done, what is better for humanity and whether we will ever be able to part with this virus.

Review: BIOHAZARD

2009-09-18T11:06:00.001-07:00

Ebola and Marburg, Plague, HIV, Smallpox, Tuleremia, Anthrax etc. We are all familiar with these horror inducing viruses and bacteria as causes of some of the worst diseases that humankind has ever seen. We don't completely realize how horrible they are unless we ourselves have experienced them, we therefore,do everything we possibly can to avoid them. Imagine somebody's surprise and horror, when one learns that one of the largest most capable nations, has been at work for decades working on ways to bring the diseases to us. That is basically a summary of my thoughts when I was reading this book. Ken Alibek, former director of the Soviet Union's top biowarfare production facility, Biopreparat, describes in full detail and without holding anything back, the full scope of the Soviet Union's commitment to use nature to its(USSR's) advantage against fellow humans.
For me, this book arises a lot questions and thoughts about several things. One major issue being our innate tendency of submission. Before and during the Cold War, Russian leaders encouraged scientists, who as doctors had promised never to intently harm human life, to produce some of the deadliest weapons of mass human destruction we have ever seen. They enlisted propanganda, a prime weapon, to brainwash people and instilled fear in them; fear of being caught thinking bad thoughts; fear of being reprimanded for associating with a known dissenter; fear of being punished for a mistake; fear of anything deemed suspicious. With these two historically successful weapons (fear and propaganda) the USSR enlisted some of the most brilliant minds science has ever seen in this race to destroy humanity. Sounds hypocritical? That's what politics is.
It is therefore important to realize that for someone as important as Ken Alibek to defect, there must have been something going on there that was so bad that it was breaching the sometimes lacking ethical and moral beliefs of the scientists (for the few who were aware of the full implications of their research). Most of the current United States biodefense strategy and biowarfare intelligence is based on what Ken Alibek had to say when he defected from the Soviet Union. What he had to say was both chilling and very helpful because it helped launch an emphasis on bioterror in the United States and around the world.
Once I opened the book, I could not put it down, suspenseful as it was in a very realistic way. In a way, it was so suspenseful because what he describes is something one can only imagine in a science fiction movie. The little fact that twists everything is that this book is NONfiction. Everything is real yet as you read, you find it so hard to imagine that something like that could be carried out by your fellow humans. My conclusions: what else are people going to start using as a weapon of mass destruction? What's next before hell breaks loose?

Book Review -Smallpox: The Death of Disease

2009-09-18T09:46:00.000-07:00

Smallpox: The Death of disease is an intriguing, true story about the smallpox global eradication campaign told by the man who ran it himself, Dr. D.A. Henderson. After providing a solid foundation with a summary of smallpox history, he plunges into the course of eradication. Henderson gives a unique anecdotal insight into a few of the intricacies and personalities that shaped the campaign program. The story travels through each country and phase of the eradication where floods, mechanical problems and not to mention cultural resistance were around every corner. Misguided politics had a significant influence as well. Fortunately, Henderson’s hands on approach and disregard for inhibitive regulations lead the effort to success.

The reader also gets a glimpse behind the scenes of the eradication certification program as well as the chilling biosecurity issues that have surfaced post-eradication. Henderson has continued to play an important role in advising the government on how to prepare for potential bioterror attacks involving smallpox. However, he concludes with a surprising opinion about future eradication efforts.

Overall, the story is engaging from cover to cover. Henderson’s anecdotal account of the campaign provides a unique dimension, which no other smallpox literature can provide. The lessons learned from this achievement should serve as a template for future global effort as well as personal life goals. In addition, smallpox aside, this inspiring account is evidence that no obstacle can inhibit a strong a will.

Review: Pox Americana

2009-09-18T01:49:00.000-07:00

Like Hai-y, I was deeply impressed by Pox Americana. Most of the other texts we read focused on the biological and sociological impacts of smallpox on a very specific population, either as a distinct bioterror threat or as a wide-ranging epidemic. Pox Americana was impressive in its specificity. In choosing to focus solely on the American Revolution, Pox Americana was able to specifically detail the effects of the disease on a population already affected by the war.

Personally, I had never before thought of the American Revolutionary war in terms of a disease epidemic, and this book made me consider the outcome in a more systematic way, The deterioration of the revolutionary army as a result of the epidemic must have surely altered the course of the war, yet the Americans still emerged victorious.

I was deeply impressed by Fenn's research into the way the prevalence of smallpox played into the overall effects of the revolutionary war. George Washington, in particular, emerged from Fenn's novel as a forward-thinking figure determined to avoid a horrible fate, yet committed to the surely fatal battle ahead.

Fenn's use of vivid specific detail was extremely valuable from a historical epidemiological perspective-- the Indians who contracted the disease as a result of a potential genetic predisposition to it have not been forgotten in Fenn's work. The terrible epidemic spreading through the North American indian population is given thoughtful treatment. I personally appreciate the disease-oriented specificity of her research, yet the broad-ranging implications it has into epidemiology as a general field.

BOOK REVIEW: THE DEMON IN THE FREEZER by Richard Preston

2009-09-17T23:20:00.000-07:00

Richard Preston opens the Demon In The Freezer, in dramatic fashion. He recalls the death of Robert Stevens, one of the victims of the anthrax mail attacks launched after September 11^th. This is followed by a gruesome autopsy and the frightening identification of the pathogen. This thrilling start draws the reader into the chilling reality of deadly biological warfare.

The intensity of the first chapter is maintained as Richard Preston describes an outbreak of smallpox in Germany. The most terrifying part of this is the attention Richard pays to the symptoms of the infected patient. His emphasis on the symptoms smallpox leaves a lasting impression about the truly horrific nature of infectious disease.

Richard Preston’s storytelling ability gives the book an edgier feel. It has all the appeal of a primal thriller, where scientists and doctors attempt to track down and kill a mass murderer. Here there are two culprits Anthrax, a stealthy, precise killer and Smallpox, a terrifying, indiscriminate slaughterer.

Richard Preston intertwines the race to eradicate Smallpox from the globe, to the artificial use of Anthrax as a Bioweapon. He these two events to inject urgency into the book, as one cannot help but contemplate the dangers of smallpox in terrorist hands.

This technique means however, that even though chapters and events in the book are thrilling and fascinating, the narrative doesn’t quite flow that naturally. This can make the book feel slightly disjointed at times

Overall however, Richard Preston’s superb rapid-fire story telling coupled with his amazing attention to detail, make for a thrilling, yet frightening read about the potential of a bioterrorist attack.

Matthew Goodyear

Review: Rotting Face

2009-09-17T21:13:00.001-07:00

In the purported speech given by the Mandan War Chief before he died, the Chief indicted the White Man for their crime: “I have Never Called a White Man a Dog, but to day, I do Pronounce them to be a set of Black harted Dogs.” Most of us have learned this by now – that the White Man screwed up a lot of things for a lot of people. Disappointedly enough, in his book, R.G. Robertson chooses the blame game again and misses out on the opportunity to present new insights on the cultural, social, and economic phenomena experienced during smallpox’s scourge in America. “Rotting Face” becomes a mere telling of facts detailing to readers what they already knew: That, boy, oh, boy, the White Man sure did screw things up again for the Indians.

Readers are inundated with facts that become daunting paragraphs one after another. R.G. Robertson places blame of the Indian smallpox outbreaks on individuals, forgetting to factor in crucial points that history has taught, such as prevailing social attitudes or the weight of faulty public health opinion. The stand-out character in “Rotting Face” is Francis Chardon, a trading post commander introduced in Chapter one and who lasts until the final pages. Chardon’s story is fascinating, but the exhaustive research Robertson churns out on this single character turns out to be the author’s crutch. Ultimately, Rotting Face delivers a story about Chardon, relying too heavily on the journal entries written by Chardon and spinning these observations into narratives about the commander’s interaction with the Indians.

I appreciated the sentimental pieces added to “Rotting Face,” such as Charles Larpenteur’s valiant efforts to help the stricken Indians, among whom were his loved ones. Yet, these stories were over-extrapolated, becoming segments about individuals here and there and forcing smallpox to relate in some way. R.G. Robertson does a fine job in his book, but his analysis on this subject is one that has been done enough times already and now needs a novel approach towards looking at American Indian history.

Biohazard: A Review

2009-09-17T15:24:00.000-07:00

Frankly, Biohazard terrified me. It was not the detailed descriptions of biological weapons facilities nor of the massive, faceless Soviet political machine that drove the development of this immense program that chilled me. It was Ken Alibek himself. Admittedly, he wrote the book in conjunction with another author, but the voice he established for himself as a narrator was flat and emotionless. As Alibek describes his development of exciting new technologies to weaponize tularemia, his tone is that of a detached scientist. Throughout the work, one of the consistent themes is his focus on the importance of his career and advancement above all else. Several times, he mentions the potential to have moral qualms about the work he was doing—but that he himself did not feel it—at the time. Each time he says something like this, my expectation of his soon-to-come complete change of heart increased. In the final chapters, anticipating his defection to the United States, I expected him to have some sort of moral crisis and understand the potential consequences of his scientific breakthroughs. Yet when the time came, Alibek’s defection seemed to be more of a function of his desire for control over his career than any other more humanitarian motivation. As his boss, Kalinin’s overbearance increased and the Soviet government’s control became more tenuous, Alibek’s frustration over the instability of his situation became palpable. His desire to leave the country came to a head when he found himself about to be forced into a job he did not want.

Now, he works as a consultant in the United States. He gains valuable defense contracts through his biological weaponry know-how. Throughout his book, he expressed no real remorse for his role in the creation of the weapons; simply for the existence of the weapons themselves, as though they emerged out of thin air. Alibek’s motivation in writing this book, then, if one assumes that it is not an apologia for his time in the USSR’s biological weapons program, seems solely self-promoting. Bolstering his image as a bioweapons expert is likely to raise his profile and augment the preexisting culture of fear surrounding biological weapons. Both of these things are likely to benefit Alibek’s career in the United States, something with which he seems to have remained consistent in pursuit of.

Follow-Up on Hapsburg mandibular prognathism (or 'the protuberant jaw')

2009-09-17T13:06:00.000-07:00

Bob was right-- the end of the Spanish Hapsburg line was not caused by inbreeding alone. However, the legendary "Habsburg Jaw" certainly was. A testament to the effect of a large proportion of homozygous alleles, the heavy jaw was present from the time of Maximilian I's grandmother on. In its most severe form, it could inhibit talking or eating, and it was the stuff of many monikers (Leopold "the Hogmouth").

As you may recall from my presentation, Maximilian's grandson Charles V split the line into two branches, and the deformity continued through both royal families. There have been few studies on hereditary prognathism, but most experts agree that the level of intermarriage among close relatives was likely to exacerbate the degree of the deformity, but not necessarily its prevalence among family members.

The degree of intermarriage among the Hapsburgs can be illustrated by Philip II, who married an two cousins, and a niece (at different times). His final marriage to his niece was the first of three such marriages that brought forth Charles II, the final Hapsburg king of Spain. Philip II's great-grandmother was Juana 'the Mad' of Castille, who brought mental instability to an already impressive litany of familial problems including asthma, epilepsy, and, apparently, as Bob indicated, a weak resistance to syphilis, which may have been spread prenatally. The gene (or gene combination, it is unclear) was estimated to effect 50% of the Hapsburgs, and thus was likely a recessive trait. Now that the Hapsburg blood has been sufficiently diluted by a broader spectrum of marriages, it is no longer in evidence on a consistent scale today.

Review: The Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-17T11:40:00.001-07:00

When I started reading “The Demon in the Freezer,” I was convinced I was reading a thriller novel. The bioterror threat itself seems like science fiction. That Preston’s work uses the thriller framework to present this terrifying, alien threat only makes his writing more effective. Preston’s book is above everything accessible. The writing flows, a story emerges, and you become engrossed in the characters involved, notably Peter Jahrling and Lisa Hensley. These aspects make the bioterror threat more urgent and human, while still utilizing its unable-to-look-away-from-a-train-wreck nature to draw and hold readers.

While not heavy on the science, I still learned from this work. I shared D.A. Henderson’s credulity when monkeys were successfully infected with smallpox, an event that I had not read about in other works. I also learned about the IL-4 experiment in mice and was shocked at the availability of public information that could be used to make a biological weapon. Further, I think it was a good idea to tie the anthrax events to smallpox. The more recent anthrax attacks give the smallpox threat added weight and highlight the difficulties in detecting and tracing bioterror perpetrators.

This work succeeds because it presents very serious, scientific issues in an approachable way, so that all readers, regardless of their scientific background, can participate in questioning the ethics of science and biological weapons in our society. These are issues that go beyond simply scientists: they affect everyone. This is definitely a must read that ends too soon. I commend Preston for making science manageable for all and for revealing humanizing insights into the biological weapons threat.

Obama + Bio Security

2009-09-17T10:51:00.000-07:00

The following is from the White House's Homeland Security Website. I find it entertaining how broad it is, and how little information it actually provides. We certainly have more information than the general public. Thank you, government, for keeping us all SO informed.

"Strengthen Our Bio and Nuclear Security

Attacks using improvised nuclear devices or biological weapons, as well as outbreaks of a pandemic disease, pose a serious and increasing national security risk, We will focus on reducing the risk of these high-consequence, nontraditional threats:

Ensuring that decision-makers have the tools they need to manage disease outbreaks by linking health care providers, hospitals, and public health agencies. By building on America's unparalleled talent and through international partnerships, we can create new drugs, vaccines, and diagnostic tests, and manufacture them more quickly and efficiently.
Strengthening our nuclear security by enhancing our nuclear detection architecture and ensuring that our own nuclear materials are secure. By establishing well-planned, well-rehearsed, plans for coordinated response, we will also ensure a capability that can dramatically diminish the consequences of chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear incidents."

http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/homeland_security/

Science and the White House

2009-09-17T10:43:00.000-07:00

Science comes as a sub-category on the White House's website. Here's what the Obama Administration says. (I'm still checking to see if they say anything about biological weapons)....

"In the past, government funding for scientific research has yielded innovations that have improved the landscape of American life — technologies like the Internet, digital photography, bar codes, Global Positioning System technology, laser surgery, and chemotherapy. At one time, educational competition with the Soviets fostered the creativity that put a man on the moon. Today, we face a new set of challenges, including energy security, HIV/AIDS, and climate change. Yet, the United States is losing its scientific dominance. Among industrialized nations, our country's scores on international science and math tests rank in the bottom third and bottom fifth, respectively. Over the last three decades, federal funding for the physical, mathematical, and engineering sciences has declined at a time when other countries are substantially increasing their own research budgets. President Obama and Vice President Biden believe federally funded scientific research should play an important role in advancing science and technology in the classroom and in the lab."

http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/additional/

Book Review : Rotting Face

2009-09-17T09:32:00.000-07:00

R. G. Robertson’s Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian relates the 1837-1838 smallpox epidemic that devastated the Native American population. The topic certainly fills a void in the smallpox and Native American literature. Robertson reveals the interdependent relationship between the Native Indians and the settlers’ fur trade. Other secondary elements surface as well such as the power of an Indian woman and the amount of interracial mixing that took place outside of the towns.

Robertson tracks every step of the epidemic as smallpox attacked “ like a scythe mowing the summer hay.” I appreciate the attention to detail in everything from the fur trade hierarchy, to smallpox symptoms to an Indian chief’s attire. However, at times the author’s pain-staking details prove to be a fault and make for tedious periods in the book.

In addition, the work is written for the general public as essential terms applicable to smallpox and Indian history are clearly defined. Robertson does plainly admit some potential inaccuracies in his statistics and references due to an incomplete record of Native American history. Although he makes this disclaimer, he makes many assumptions and relates them in the format of “ No doubt Chardon felt…” and “No doubt Chardon thought…”, a bit of an excessive liberty in my opinion.

Despite the criticisms, I would recommend this book because it adds an untold piece to the puzzle of smallpox history and American history.

H1N1 Pandemic Flu Has Been Hiding in Pigs for Decades

2009-09-17T09:31:00.000-07:00

At a meeting of flu experts sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, expert Michael Worobey, who specializes in tracking viruses on the “molecular clock” said that the new pandemic H1N1 flu has been hiding in pigs for a decade before it jumped into the human species. Molecular tests show that this virus made a “mutational Jump” into humans only recently as humans continued to interact with pigs. He also believed that it continued to circulate undetected in humans once it made the jump for a few more months; thus, he says, there is an obligation to improve surveillance of swine flu in pigs and humans. The goal of this meeting, called by the Institute of Medicine, was to examine the pandemic and look for better ways to be prepared and deal with the next one, not that one is coming for sure but viruses ARE everywhere just waiting for when the time is right.

Worobey said that if doctors tested patients for influenza, we could have caught this virus a month or two before we did. It is therefore hard to determine when and where it first jumped into the human species because by the time we found it, it had been circulating in Mexico and the US for months.

The new strain has bird-like genetic sequences and is believed to have jumped from birds to pigs a long time ago. Apparently, once it jumped into humans, its genes changed quickly, evolving at a 1.5x faster rate than it evolved in swine. And to the relief of doctors and healthcare workers preparing for the global vaccination campaign, the currently circulating virus is not mutating but experts believe it will eventually begin to. What’s next??

http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre58e51g-us-flu-swine/

"Don't tell me when to sleep!"

2009-09-16T23:18:00.000-07:00

With his taste for unceasing globe-trotting adventures, Dustin Hoffman’s character from "Outbreak" may belong to the group of genetically superior people in our society who can function perfectly well with minimal amounts of sleep. I don’t know whether to look at these super-humans with jealousy or pity, but a 68-year-old woman noticed how peculiar her sleeping habits were and volunteered for sleep research. Her nightly routine consisted of going to sleep at 10 PM and waking up at 4 AM. Researchers at UC San Francisco examined the woman’s DNA and her sleep variable gene, called DEC2.

This gene was inserted in mice and the researchers discovered that the mice functioned normally despite fewer sleep in comparison to the control group that did not receive the DEC2 variation.

Stanford researchers also got involved with the project, posing two questions. They asked whether sleep among the insomniac mice were deeper than those without the DEC2 gene. Upon this inquiry, they discovered that the insomniac’s mice sleep were no different than the control group. The Stanford researchers also asked whether interrupted sleep patterns among the two groups affected waking performance, and they found out that the mice with the DEC2 variation were more robust in their physical activities.

More exciting questions are yet to be answered. The researchers want to explore whether people with sleep variations have different moods and temperaments. “Do they have more positive outlooks or are they less depressed? Are they more driven, and could that explain why they sleep less?”

Perhaps we can help by sending our professor and SCAs over to the lab for research.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090916153136.htm

BSL-4 Lab Security

2009-09-16T22:55:00.001-07:00

In 2008, the Government Accountability Office assessed the security of the nation's five BSL-4 labs, and found that two of the five labs showed a "significant lack" of security controls. The GAO evaluated the labs on 15 criteria including the existence of a perimeter boundary, a buffer zone around the lab, barriers to prevent vehicles from entering the lab, a command and control center, a closed circuit tv system, camera coverage for all exterior lab entrances, a visible armed presence at all entrances, and vehicle screening. The two problem labs did not have any of the mentioned security measures in place.

The GAO presented its findings to the CDC and recommended that they take steps to increase the security of the failing labs. In a follow up report, however, the GAO found that the CDC had taken only limited actions to implement increased security measures, creating a task force on the issue. The CDC has refused to present minutes or findings of the task force to the GAO at this time. In the interim, the two failing labs have implemented some additional security measures themselves. One lab is now on its way to having the same standards as the three well secured labs. However, the fifth lab has implemented just a few changes, instead questioning the criteria assessed by the GAO. This lab maintains that it is sufficiently secured even though it does not have the specific measures required by the GAO.

This situation paints a disturbing picture of BSL-4 security in this country. There is currently no government agency or office responsible for creating a standardized security program for the labs. While all must comply with select agent security rules, these do not offer enough guidance for overarching, uniform security measures. Another concern is that the labs are run by different government agencies with different ideas about security. For instance, one of the labs with high security is run by the DoD. While the concerns from the fifth failing lab regarding the selection of assessment criteria are valid, I would personally feel more secure knowing that all labs dealing with highly lethal agents have a uniform, high-level security system in place. Especially with more BSL-4 labs expected to open in the near future, greater communication and cooperation are needed between the CDC, GAO and other agencies that run the labs, like the DoD. How such cooperation would arise is the biggest question. However, with the recent introduction of the WMD Prevention and Preparedness Act of 2009 that seeks to allocate additional funding for lab security, we can at least hope that the the recommended improvements for the failings labs will be implemented in the near future.

http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09851.pdf

Rinderpest, Prepare to Die

2009-09-16T21:46:00.001-07:00

Rinderpest virus, or "cattle plague" in German, may be seeing its last days on this planet. The disease, whose history bears many similarities to that of smallpox, is expected to be eradicated from cattle in the next year. Like smallpox, the virus causes fever, "oral erosions," and has an extremely high mortality rate (over 75%). Animals infected with the virus, which spreads through direct contact and contaminated water, die within six to twelve days after the onset of symptoms. Similar to human diseases, cattle in Europe faced a number of rinderpest pandemics in the 1700s. More recently an outbreak in Africa in the 1980s cost an estimated $500 million in lost livestock.

Inoculation practices, like variolation for smallpox, were initially developed in the late 1700s, though they were not widely implemented due to the large number of animals that died as a result of the procedure. In the 1960s, a vaccine was developed, but not until the 1990s, when a heat stable version was developed (sound familiar...?), did eradication become a possibility. In the last several months, Ethiopia, one of the last three countries with the virus, reported that it is outbreak free. In another parallel to the smallpox eradication, Ethiopian officials are struggling to determine how to verify that the virus has been fully eliminated before officially declaring it eradicated. When this occurs, rinderpest will only remain in two countries, Kenya and smallpox's last stronghold, Somalia. Like smallpox, however, eradication may not be the end of rinderpest. The cattle virus was researched as an agent for biological weapons during the United States' biological weapons program. Could there be a destruction of the final strains debate for rinderpest? Also what would D.A. Henderson say, now that another virus is on the brink of eradication? Finally, could Ethiopian officials adopt methods used in the smallpox eradication to verify that their country is free of the virus?

http://www.voanews.com/english/Science/2009-09-16-voa35.cfm

Swine Flu leads to Avian Flu-like symptoms??

2009-09-16T11:57:00.000-07:00

Swine flu is all over the news! The CDC recently published that this swine flu virus that is going around causes "deep, fatal lung infections rarely seen in seasonal flu but common with the deadly avian strain." This current virus is different from seasonal influenza. According to results from tests done on 100 Americans who had died from this swine flu, they had infections deep in their lungs which caused acute respiratory distress syndrome. This causes the air sacs in the lungs to fill with fluid, and deprives the blood of oxygen, causing its victims to basically suffocate or drown. This current strain of swine flu virus causes more problems in youth. According to Sherif Zaki, "This is almost exactly what we see with avian flu. This looks like avian flu on steroids."

This article published by USA Today also lists other problems that have been associated with people who have come down with the swine flu. I find it just a little intimidating that this new swine flu looks like avian flu on steroids. Flu season has yet to begin and yet we are seeing more people getting sick. This article also states that some studies have shown people infected with H1N1 to be contagious for about a week longer than those who are diagnosed with seasonal flu. This could mean more children sick in schools, more people becoming sick at work, and other densely populated areas...

Will we be able to effectively combat H1N1 so that it doesn't become more of a problem than it already is?? I sure hope so...

http://blogs.usatoday.com/ondeadline/2009/09/cdc-swine-flu-causing-deadly-lung-infections-like-avian-virus.html

Review: Scourge

2009-09-16T10:02:00.000-07:00

Jonathan Tucker’s comprehensive work, “Scourge,” is the perfect book for learning the basics about every aspect of smallpox’s multifaceted existence. From the disease’s early history to eradication to its potential as a biological weapon, Tucker covers it all. The book is packed with critical information yet is miraculously under 300 pages, an admirable feat indeed.

Throughout the story of eradication and especially afterwards, in the debate over whether to destroy the virus strains, Tucker relies heavily on eradication leader D.A. Henderson’s analysis. Henderson is Tucker’s barometer for almost every issue related to the virus strain destruction debate. While it was interesting to hear the legendary Henderson’s take, I feel as though Tucker over-used Henderson’s opinions and could have more effectively used them sparingly. However, this is but a small complaint for an otherwise superb work.

I was especially enthralled by Tucker’s description of the “Dark Winter” scenario, a simulation of a bioteror attack with smallpox. His descriptions of the destruction the virus could bring upon a largely unvaccinated population were chilling and terrifying. This is where Tucker’s work triumphs. He is able to raise central questions about disease eradication and scientific ethics without being stuffy or overly theoretical. He adds an emotional dimension and urgency to these issues, making “Scourge” as much about how we should question our scientific system now as about the dread disease that plagued humanity for centuries.

Review: Pox Americana

2009-09-15T22:18:00.000-07:00

Smallpox the disease has typically been relegated to the background story. In the annals of historical literature, the disease was typically portrayed as responsible for this and that, for the decimation of this population or the reason for so-and-so’s death. And then, alas, readers would discover that history changed its course. Although, smallpox’s role was consequential, the historical accounts of it remained tangential. Pox Americana reverses this trend in historical literature and breaks fascinating ground with a heavily-researched account in which smallpox – Variola personified – is the main character, shaping the people and places of colonial America.

Elizabeth Fenn begins every chapter with an anecdote about people. It is a reminder that smallpox holds no discrimination in its ruthlessness. Rich or poor, George Washington or David George, the black slave, “Variola’s story is necessarily a story of connections between people.” The first half takes readers back into the cottages of colonial America, where the practice of inoculation was just beginning to grow as active resistance against the scourge. Fenn’s meticulous research loops readers into the letters of John Adam, in which he describes his procedure, to the resistance the procedure faced by the poorer class because inoculation was limited to only those who could afford it. She traces the events of the American Revolutionary War into a series of culminating steps that pushed General George Washington into mandating inoculation for armed forces, a wise decision that would tide away the flow of class resistance.

In the second half of the book, Fenn focuses on the vast landscape West of the Mississippi, of the trials of the Native Americans with these events structured around a loose set of dates. Because a chronological account of this period and location is hard to define (much less, research on), the book loses the descriptive luster of the first half and boils down to a set of disparate dates and dismally shocking number of deaths one after the other.

Pox Americana succeeds in lifting the virus from the historical back-story and personifying it into a character that moves along in history. (“Variola found a steady supply of victims.”) As smallpox ceded to the American colonists win for inoculation, it moved to the West, its virulence looming in history and portending for further battle.

A Helpful Zirus

2009-09-15T20:41:00.000-07:00

There is a lot of science going on in Georgia: in addition to phage development, biotech firm Zirus is working on a new way to eliminate viral infections. Instead of targeting the virion directly, Zirus aims to target the host cell, creating medications that should make human cells “inhospitable to viral infection.” Researchers at Zirus hope the technology will be effective against a broad range of viral infections, from HIV to the common cold. A central objective is to find a solution for an entire family of viruses, which would be a bold proactive move, anticipating viruses yet to emerge.

In vitro tests showed Zirus techniques to be effective with every virus tested so far—they say the implication is that a universal drug would be possible. Personally, I think I will wait for the in vivo trials before making any presumptions about universal application.

They call the technology a ‘gene trap’, which is essentially a modified retrovirus that will enter a cell and alter a single gene that when expressed allows harmful viral infections to occur. Zirus wants to turn off the production of all proteins that are ‘virus-friendly’. Unfortunately, protein-inhibiting drugs carry the concern of toxicity. Zirus is optimistic nonetheless. A representative explained that several genes will be possible targets for each virus, and at least one will not involve high toxicity.

http://singularityhub.com/2009/09/14/the-scoop-on-zirus-from-ceo-david-perryman/

Review: Assessment of Future Scientific Needs for Live Variola Virus

2009-09-15T13:46:00.000-07:00

While we live in a very answers-driven world, "Assessment" provides disappointingly few of them through its very concise, direct examination of why on earth we might still want to maintain stores of variola virus.

One of the shining strengths of the book for a common reader would be its very to-the-point description of smallpox-related concepts that typically take lots of reading to discover. In fewer than thirty well-written pages, the audience is taken through the nature of the virus itself, efforts to eradicate it, and the current situation, effectively preparing any reader for the last half of the report for the pièce de résistance.

However, while the reasons given for further research on the virus are very well explained and carefully considered, the authors supplant the confidence usually expected from researchers of their stature with a very apologetic tone constantly reminding the reader that they refuse to formulate any opinion on the actual debate of the virus stores. While this might be appropriate for creating an objective, scientific tone, the generally balanced view of both sides becomes a glaring weakness when the reader is left with more questions than answers about the point of contention within the scientific community.

Many might argue that, seeing as the purpose of the report was not to comment on the fate of variola, a noncommittal stance might be fine. Now, more than ever, is not the time to be ambivalent about the topic. If we should keep the stocks, free up the regulations on research so that the scientists can do their job without having to worry about time and funding restraints. If we shouldn't, then let's destroy them and move on. The IoM Report, as well-written for its given purpose as it is, is just too neutral for my taste.

New Adjuvant Discovered!

2009-09-15T11:38:00.000-07:00

At the University of Oregon, researchers discovered a new type of adjuvant based upon nanoparticles that are found in lecithin, a fatty substance most commonly found in egg yolk.

A few weeks ago, we learned that an adjuvant is something that increases the immune response when used in certain vaccines. Currently, only aluminum hydroxide is approved as an adjuvant in the United States. Unfortunately, the current form is much too weak and limited to be used within a broad spectrum to increase vaccine efficacy.

The lecithin compound was shown to produce an immune response six times stronger than that induced by the aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. In addition, less of the compound is needed for the body to respond. The small pathogen-like size of the particles causes the body to arm itself very readily to what it assumes to be an impending threat. Because it is a common food product, researchers believe it likely that it can be safely used within the body, which is rather meaningful given the very touchy policy the Food and Drug Administration has recently held towards the development of vaccines.

Researchers believe it possible that, should the use of lecithin be approved and its safety as an adjuvant be verified, it may be used as a universal carrier within all vaccines within the near future.

http://hex.io/1he8

Patent Problem

2009-09-15T00:45:00.000-07:00

, During our conversation with Steve Block on Friday the topic of incentivizing the pharmaceutical industry to make vaccines came up. I actually wrote a paper this year concerning the pharmaceutical industry’s obligation to humanity, which includes providing vaccines and conducting research for the third world. As we discussed, the main issue is that there is no economic incentive for this industry to provide cheap or free vaccines to developing countries. Dr. Thomas Pogge, a renowned Leitner Professor of Philosophy offers a potential solution. Pogge identifies the patent system as the heart of the problem. Patents may support a sense of competition in the research field and inspire innovation. However, once they are obtained, a single company has the power to excessively increase drug prices without competition. Pogge’s solution essentially involves separating the research and development sector from the marketing sector, at least for research involving life-threatening diseases. He also proposes that this separate R&D sector be supported by a global fund. Contributions from every country would need to support the fund, with developed nations undertaking the majority of the cost. However, there is motivation for developed nations to do this because medication cost will be decreased for everyone, according to Pogge’s theory.

The point of whether or not the pharmaceutical industry has a duty to humanity is certainly debatable, but Pogge simply offers a potential solution. The idea of a global health fund reminds me of the Atlantic Storm simulation. Should only a third party organization like the WHO be in control during global health emergencies? Should a neutral global health fund support research essential to the health and survival of humanity?

“Thirty years ago modern health technology had just awakened and was full of promise. Since then its expansion has surpassed all dreams, only to become a nightmare.”

- Dr. Halfdan Mahler, Director General, World Health Organization, 1990

Swine Flu and Small Businesses

2009-09-14T23:23:00.001-07:00

The Department of Homeland Security just released a set of guidelines meant to aid small businesses in establishing plans that would allow them to maintain operations in the event that their employees became ill with the flu. DHS urges small businesses to prepare for the worst case scenario, in which many employees are ill and remain at home for up to five days. While some small businesses would be able to continue operations with employees working at home, many others, especially those involved in manufacturing, would not.

Most small business owners interviewed did not seem terribly concerned. Many thought that they could shift remaining workers to cover sick workers' duties or hire temporary workers if necessary. DHS also recommended that each business name a "H1N1 coordinator" whose responsibilities are to review sick leave policies and ensure that those who are ill keep their germs away from those who are healthy.

In light of Sara Cody's discussion today, it seems almost funny that DHS recommends small businesses try to institute additional, possibly ineffective infrastructural measures when those established by the federal government are frequently unsuccessful themselves. The recommendations also highlight the wide ranging effects of disease. With huge existing problems in the economy and half of the US's private sector employees working in small businesses, it makes sense that the government is concerned with the potential negative economic effects of absenteeism due to flu. Whether creating an H1N1 coordinator in each small business is the best way to deal with this fear, however, remains to be seen.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/14/AR2009091403261.html?hpid=sec-business

Smallpox: the Death of a Disease

2009-09-14T23:06:00.000-07:00

D.A. Henderson’s detailed narrative of smallpox eradication added a personal dimension to the smallpox story, one that was not always present in other readings on the subject. Henderson recounts his years in the WHO from how he unexpectedly obtained a position at the organization, to years of frustrating bureaucratic interactions, and many adventures in far-flung corners of the globe. His determination and no-holds-barred attitude shine through in his writing.

I enjoyed Henderson’s descriptions of specific countries that posed challenges to eradication, especially cultural differences that affected the process. The inoculation of Muslim women in Afghanistan, for instance, illustrated the cultural, religious, political, and geographic boundaries eradication transcended. While insightful, I wished some of the bureaucratic and logistic details had been omitted as I think it would have made the pace of the book more in tune with the whirl-wind task of eradicating the disease in such a short time.

Most unsettling about his work, is Henderson’s conclusion that no other diseases can ever be eradicated. He points to the failure of polio campaigns, infrastructural challenges and funding problems as the basis for this conclusion. As the man who steered the smallpox program through many of the same challenges, this ending seems out of place. Henderson’s personal account shows how valuable a strong leader is in a world health campaign. Perhaps other eradication programs are simply awaiting the (serendipitous) arrival of their own D.A. Hendersons for their own successes to occur.

Scourge

2009-09-14T21:15:00.000-07:00

If I were to read just one book about smallpox, Scourge would most certainly be it. Scourge is what I would consider the ‘everything smallpox book’. It covers every element of smallpox from its beginnings, to its eradication, to biological warfare, and its position in the world today in a very straightforward fashion. Because this book is so densely packed with information, I would not consider it a particularly easy read. However, I would say that it is a fantastic resource for anyone who wants an in depth summary of smallpox’s role in past, present, and future.

It is difficult to say what my favorite part of this book is, because I appreciate every single part of it. I liked this book from its first, captivating page, which made me even more interested in what I was about to read. The brief history and scientific background were short and sweet, with just enough information. Tucker spent quite a large amount of the book detailing the eradication campaign, which I think is essential to understanding smallpox in today’s world. He spent slightly less time on Soviet biological weapons production, which I certainly enjoyed, but I would have liked him to go into detail about U.S. biological weapons production. I also enjoyed Tucker’s details regarding the ‘to destroy or not to destroy’ debate and his reflections upon 9/11 because they are not just relevant to a distant past. Instead, they are pertinent to the present and a quickly approaching future.

All in all I think this is a fantastic book and I would recommend it to anyone hoping to become a smallpox scholar in fewer than 300 pages. (If someone would rather learn a little bit about smallpox and anthrax in the context of a dramatic plot line, I would recommend reading The Demon in the Freezer instead).

I am the Master Gene

2009-09-14T15:18:00.000-07:00

UK researchers, from Imperial College London, University College London and the Medical Research Council's National Institute for Medical Research feel they have discovered a "Master Gene" that helps mobilize the immune system to fight disease.

The gene in question is E4bp4 and it is shown to cause stem cells in the blood to differentiate into disease fighting NK (natural killer) immune cells. It is hoped that this discovery will lead to new ways to boost the body's production of these frontline cells - potentially creating a new way to kill cancer.

They have managed to create mice that lack the key gene -E4bp4. These animals are normal in every way except they have no NK cells at all. Currently, NK cells isolated from donated blood are sometimes used to treat cancer patients - but the effectiveness of donated cells is limited because NK cells can be slightly different from person to person.

"If increased numbers of the patient's own blood stem cells could be coerced into differentiating into NK cells, via drug treatment, we would be able to bolster the body's cancer-fighting force, without having to deal with the problems of donor incompatibility" (Dr Hugh Brady)

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8250330.stm

Matthew Goodyear

Antibiotic Resistance Mechanism Found in Bacteria

2009-09-14T14:20:00.001-07:00

Scientists at New York University have discovered in their research, a defense mechanism in bacteria that allows them to be unaffected by the threat of antibiotics. This has been a developing problem with diseases such as MRSA; but now that the secret to this and other bacteria's method has been discovered, there might be no need to develop new treatments to which the bacteria are resistant. Now the current drugs just have to be improved in effectiveness in order to take advantage of this new information on bacteria. This secret, the researchers claim, is nitric oxide: bacteria produce this chemical in order to eliminate some key effects of a number of antibiotics.

Nitric oxide is a highly reactive gas that acts as a signaling or messenger molecule in the body of mammals like humans; it is involved in the physiological and pathological processes in the body and can be beneficial and detrimental. Among other functions, it is released by phagocytes as a part of human immune response. When used as an immune response, it is released as a free radical that is toxic to bacteria through DNA damage and degradation of iron sulfur centers, but some bacteria have developed resistance to it, which brings us back to the scientists at NYU. (see wiki page on Nitric Oxide for more info)

Scientists found that the enzymes that produced nitric oxide were activated specifically to respond to antibiotics and that nitric oxide mitigates damage that is caused by drugs and to neutralize several toxic chemicals found in the antibiotic. When the scientists disabled the bacteria's ability to produce nitric oxide, they found that the antibiotic drug was able work effectively at lower, less toxic doses. It is believed that if the enzyme that produces nitric oxide can be inhibited, it would open a new door of therapeutic advances which would be very welcome at this time when antibiotic development is waning.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8248020.stm

Reporter Humorously Wears "Flu Armour," NY Times Covers Masks...

2009-09-14T13:33:00.000-07:00

The New York Times featured dual articles on (extreme) flu preventative measures on the 11th and 14th of September. Ariel Kammer went around New York in Flu Armour for a day to gauge reactions from her fellow New Yorkers. As we saw with the presentation by Mark Liao, it is increasingly common to see people walking around wearing masks, so I didn't know what sort of reactions she would get. Kammer bought a kit from Flu Armour, a New Jersey company and took to New York City, rather comically eating out, riding the subway, etc. The Pandemic Emergency Defense system cost $69 and included 20 masks, 50 glove pairs, goggles, hand wipes and disinfectant wipes. A separate white paper jumpsuit cost $6.75. While these articles focus on the ineffectiveness of flimsy surgical masks, they doesn't note anything about N95 masks, which Dr. Sara Cody mentioned and Mark Liao spoke extensively about.

I think it would be an interesting study into the psychology of New Yorkers to examine the variety of reactions. While Kammer states most people avoided her eye contact, like passengers on a subway, and many people walked by without even cracking a smile, some people did stare, criticize, OR ask where they too could purchase these products. Clearly, paranoia has its place in the flu epidemic. Yet, these drastic measures really aren't necessary, as comments from Dr. Farley, NYC's city health commissioner indicate. Wearing a mask and gloves are only valuable if one is taking care of a relative or friend with the flu, in a situation of consistent close proximity.

The article affirms something Mark told us. While there is a common misconception that surgical masks will help prevent inhalation of the flu: “Surgical masks are designed to trap respiratory secretions (including bacteria and viruses) expelled by the wearer and prevent disease transmission to others,” the study authors wrote. “Surgical masks are not designed to prevent inhalation of airborne particles.” So really, you should wear the surgical masks if you already have the flu, not to prevent them. Researchers from University of Melbourne did find that those who wore a mask and coughed into petri dishes didn't grow viruses in them, but found that the mask did not stop inhalation of particles. That is simply not what surgical masks are designed to do.

I thought it was most fascinating to see how something we talked about in class so recently now is in the national news in a less-detailed, more approachable fashion for the everyday non-poxstars.

http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/14/who-should-wear-a-mask-during-flu-season/
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/13/nyregion/13critic.html?scp=1&sq=masks%20swine%20flu&st=cse

2009 Lasker Awards in Medical Research

2009-09-14T11:31:00.000-07:00

John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka were honored yesterday as recipients of the 2009 Albert Lasker Award for Excellence in Medical Research. This prize has been considered the most prestigious in American medical science; fifty percent of winners have gone on to also win Nobel prizes. The research of these two sounds astoundingly futuristic-- they have essentially learned how to reprogram cells to revert them back to their embryonic state. In essence, these researchers take adult cells and revert them back to stem cells, which can be used in a variety of ways while leapfrogging some of the socially-imposed roadblocks to traditional stem call research. This new technology indicates that all cells retain their initial genes, despite maturing into different cellular functions. In theory, this creates the potential to re-develop a mature cell for use in "experimental or therapeutic purposes". In terms of therapy, these cells have the potential to uninvasively help replace damaged tissues without the risk of immune rejection of foreign tissues. Experimentally, these cells can be used to test new drug treatments accurately without the risk to human life that a human drug trial would entail.

This new technology seemed to contradict the doctrine of differentiation. Little understood by biologists, differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes set to a specific purpose, and loses its capacity to perform other cellular functions. Two theories prevail about the mechanism of this process. One is that cells shed genes that they no longer need as they age-- i.e. a muscle cell no longer needs to perform the functions of a blood cell. The other is that cells retain all of their genetic components, but are able to switch them on and off as necessary.

In the 1950s, Gurdon's original experiment overturned conventional scientific thought that once cells had differentiated, they were permanently set that way. Gurdon was able to regrow an adult frog's skin cell into an embryonic cell, and thereby grow a tadpole. Conclusions of this experiment "showed that a completely differentiated nucleus was indeed totipotent: It could direct the formation of all cells, including eggs and sperm, necessary to compose a completely functioning adult". Gurdon's work was the predecessor of Keith Campbell's research and eventual successful cloning of Dolly the sheep.

In the 1990s, Yamanaka took this research a step further in an attempt to circumvent controversy about the use of embryonic stem cells to grow adult tissue. Perhaps the opposite was true-- adult cells could be converted to embryonic ones. Searching the genome for a series of genes found in embryonic stem cells in mice that allowed the cell to remain in an 'uncommitted' (not yet differentiated state). He was successfully able to produce what he named immuno pluripotent stem cells, or iPS. iPS, when injected into immuno-deficient mice, is able to regrow a variety of types of damaged tissues. Yamanaka has been able to repeat this experiment with human cells, despite some concerns about some of the genes possessing cancer-causing potential.

http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2009_b_description.htm

Causes of Immunodeficiency

2009-09-14T11:22:00.001-07:00

In study of infectious disease, we have appropriately explored the different reasons why people become immunodeficient and more susceptible to becoming more infected. At the 2nd European Congress of Immunology in Berlin, Professor Reinholdt Schmidt tried to provide further light into the reasons that our immune systems poop out on us.

Most common causes of immunodeficiency are poor nutrition, living in unsanitary conditions, and the presence of different viruses within the body. Other people just get old, and their immune system decides to retire. Only one in five hundred people have some sort of innate dysfunction in the immune system from birth.

New deficiencies are found virtually every day in genetic mutations that result in immunodeficiency, mostly in the form of B-cell and T-cell deficiencies. The use of stem cells and antibodies are generally effective to countering the absence of natural tools of the immune system.

More:
http://hex.io/1hb0

Oh, Me and Viruses? We Go Way Back.

2009-09-14T10:05:00.000-07:00

Frank Ryan, author of Virolution, argues that we are much closer to our virological friends than we might expect. While recognizing that viruses act largely in a very selfish manner, he cautions the typical germaphobe from seeing them as just a pack of proteins.

“People who view viruses only as chemical assemblages miss the vitally important point that they have arrived on the scene through a vast, and exceedingly complex, trajectory of evolution, much as we have ourselves.”

Human endogenic retroviruses, he argues, were absolutely crucial through the evolution of mankind. Up to 46 percent of our genome comes from viruses, a high number when placed in comparison to the 1.5% that came from our animal ancestors.

Ryan likes to see viruses as following the same evolutionary process that its hosts do. He feels that seeing both the positive and negative elements of the viruses will help us discover the best way to treat viruses in mammals.

http://hex.io/1has

Review: The Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-14T09:50:00.001-07:00

Preston's masterpiece collects some of the most important characters and ideas in the past century of infectious disease and combines them into a very readable, engrossing novel that almost makes you forget you're reading nonfiction.

For me, the world of using disease as a weapon was a very abstract concept just a few months ago. I knew that it had been done before, it has the potential to kill lots of people, it's not allowed, and it is very bad. I'd heard about the anthrax cases earlier this decade, and evidently I didn't pick up very much from what I heard.

"Demon in the Freezer" effectively takes these concepts and stuffs them into very real, relatable characters whose dialogue and inner thoughts provide much more insight into the field of infectious disease than what one normally receives from a 30-second report on the evening news.

Lisa Hensley, one of the main characters, particularly sticks out in my mind. Her very human feelings allow us to easily connect with a person in a field that we usually don't see. She eats Lean Cuisine. She worries about her significant other while at work. I've been doing a lot of reading on virology and infectious disease, and the change to a more personal explanation of the topic is absolutely refreshing.

BioWatch

2009-09-14T09:39:00.000-07:00

The Biowatch Program was founded in 2001 after the anthrax bioterrorism scare. Without totally understanding the biology of anthrax, security officials understood that currently the only means of detection was through diagnosis of symptoms, by which point it would probably be too late for the patient. As such, they decided to focus their newfound homeland security budget on early "pathogen sensors". It functions through a series of filters run by the Environmental Protection Agency, who then send results to the CDC, limiting the impact of any 'early warning' system through bureaucratic delays. Concerns about BioWatch's efficacy include gaps in its coverage, and worries that it may not detect the presence of bioterrorist agents in large, polluted cities, or underground or indoors. Some municipal officials believe that the presence of detectors in some cities may shift the focus of terrorists to undercovered cities. There has only been one positive reading from a BioWatch system in Houston, TX in 2003, during which tularemia was detected. However, it was unclear whether this pathogen had always existed in the environment.
The major flaw in the program is the communication gap between the intelligence community who are reluctant to share information and the public health leaders who need to act quickly on intelligence received in order to save lives. The differing focuses of the two groups lead to their response to the problem in different ways; the FBI is concerned with national security and the terrorism threat, doctors are concerned with the health of their communities. According to the Department of Homeland Security, "Since much information on BioWatch has not been released to the public, it is difficult to evaluate criticisms of the system". However, this philosophy seems like throwing an anvil on the criticism, delegitimizing and refusing to respond to it.

And the popularity contest prize goes to......

2009-09-14T00:27:00.000-07:00

The Demon in the Freezer

The Demon in the Freezer is fantastic for the average person who knows little to nothing about smallpox or anthrax, the scientist who wants a light read, and anyone else who wants to be terrified about the world in which we live.

While this book covered main points, which were detailed in the eight other books I had previously read about smallpox, I do not believe The Demon in the Freezer was not made for someone hoping for key, concrete information about the smallpox virus. I say this because, though all the names, places, and history were accurate, each chapter jumped around from topic to topic, and drama to drama. Rather than giving a chronological account of smallpox in the world, Preston travels through time as he wishes. While I could place everything on a time line in my mind because I had previous knowledge about the subject, I believe it would be very difficult for the average reader to understand the order and importance of each event as the book goes on.

It is also worth noting that the title of this book is deceiving, for the story is not just about smallpox (aka “the demon”), but anthrax as well. Although the anthrax scare added intensity to the plot line, it seemed unnecessary. I would rather Preston wrote two separate thrillers about smallpox and anthrax, instead.

That being said, I thoroughly enjoyed reading The Demon in the Freezer for what it was. It was an easy, light, and fun read, despite its frighteningly heavy topic. Reading The Demon in the Freezer was like watching a thriller based on a true story, but even scarier. Every so often I would have to remind myself that I am currently in the world that is the realization of a seemingly fictional world in Preston's book.

Viral Outbreak Show!

2009-09-13T23:43:00.000-07:00

There's a Discovery Channel show called "The Colony" that has to do with viruses!...sorta. It is about an experiment in which a group of every day people are forced to survive in an old warehouse for 10 weeks as though there were a global catastrophe.

According to the show's website, "Experts from the fields of homeland security, engineering and psychology have helped design the world of The Colony to reflect elements from both real-life disasters and models of what the future could look like after a global viral outbreak."

I don't particularly understand how the creators of this show decided to make a massive generalization combining real life disasters and a global viral outbreak. As we informed scholars know, depending on the virus (or the natural disaster), things could get very nasty, very quickly. I don't think hiding in an old warehouse would necessarily protect a group of people from smallpox. Come on, now.

But I guess I'd have to see the show to really understand what it was about. Has anyone in our class ever watched this show?....

NYT Gives Scary (and Incorrect) Depiction of Rift Valley Fever

2009-09-13T23:41:00.001-07:00

While searching the web for information about Rift Valley Fever, I came across a terrifying article in the New York Times. The article asked readers to imagine the potential use of the Rift Valley Fever virus as a bioterror weapon:

“What if a terrorist group announced that their operatives had introduced Rift Valley fever into the United States? This mosquito-borne disease would make West Nile virus look like a case of the sniffles. Given that virtually every corner of America has a native species of mosquito capable of transmitting the virus, Rift Valley fever could spread across the nation. Hundreds of thousands of people could be sickened, with thousands dying and many more falling blind. The livestock industry could lose billions of dollars as animals aborted their fetuses and succumbed to bloody diarrhea. Imagine the fear if every mosquito bite this summer could be the precursor of a disease that would cause your brain to become inflamed or your internal organs to hemorrhage?”

-http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/19/opinion/19lockwood.html?_r=2&ref=opinion

Fortunately, this situation is overly dramatic and not realistic. A professor of virology at Columbia University specifically attacked the NYT article in his blog, showing that the article is not a serious assessment of the potential of Rift Valley Fever virus.

Rift Valley Fever virus (RVFV) is transmitted among livestock by mosquito vectors, and has caused large outbreaks of disease in livestock that can create economic decline. It can affect humans, but in the vast majority of cases transmission occurs by direct contact with blood or organs of infected animals, rather than through mosquitoes. Additionally, most human cases are mild, lacking the horrible symptoms described in the NYT article, and the fatality rate is less that one percent.

There is no doubt that RVFV is potentially dangerous, but the outlook for an outbreak is not as grim as the NYT article presents it to be. I found the two articles interesting because they highlight the general public’s lack of knowledge about most infectious diseases and the panic that can ensue due to it.

Worrying Smallpox Research Trends

2009-09-13T23:30:00.000-07:00

The WHO (pronounced W.H.O.) has been meeting repeatedly over the past few years to discuss research direction and restrictions. There has been good reason for this, as new techniques have made it harder to determine where to draw the line. Some of the worrying trends regarding research have been highlighted by Lim Li Ching, a Senior Fellow at The Oakland Institute.

His three main objections are summarized as follows:

1. A laboratory linked to the US government and whose work includes designing weapons of mass destruction for the US army has initiated experiments with variola virus genes engineered into other organisms, using smallpox genes that are not from a WHO-authorized repository, but synthesized by a company

2. A US government biosecurity committee has proposed that domestic US legal restrictions on possession of variola virus be repealed, which would effectively allow possession of the virus.

3. The WHO advisory committee overseeing the remaining stocks of smallpox virus and research using it seems to be backpedaling on some of its previous decisions. Prompted by disagreement over if and how the WHO should control synthesized variola genes, it is also reviewing the rules restricting the distribution of smallpox DNA and the type of research allowed. Critics fear that, given the committee's previous attempt to weaken these rules, this could be a dangerous move.

This all seems fairly worrying, especially how one of them seems to suggest that the US may still be investing in Biowarfare.... Read the full article for more information: http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/?q=node/view/408

Matthew Goodyear

Fooling the Flu

2009-09-13T22:34:00.000-07:00

Conventional methods of flu vaccine creation involve prediction of dominant haemagglutinin and neraminidase. Haemagglutinin works to “deflect the immune attack away from more vulnerable parts of the virus”, acting like a decoy. For this reason, vaccines are now being designed to contain only conserved proteins instead of entire viruses. The protein of greatest interest is M2, which has been investigated by no less than ten companies. They have been exploring the use of a certain part of M2—M2e—that protrudes from the protein. Researchers have attached M2e, which does not elicit a strong immune reaction when injected, to molecules that would elicit such a response otherwise.

Merck, Acambis, and VaxInnate have all reached clinical trials. However, Merck abandoned its efforts in 2007 after they found that the M2e hybrid only resulted in antibody production when pain-causing adjuvants were added. Work at Acambis slowed when it was absorbed by Sanofi-Pasteur. In 2008, their M2e vaccine with two adjuvants produced antibodies and no major side effects in 90% of subjects. The head of VaxInnate claims that the company has developed a vaccine with zero adjuvants and an identical antibody response (as compared to Merck and Acambis). VaxInnate will move ahead first, but further trials are currently stalled as authorities take on swine flu challenges.

Research at Oxford is going in a different direction, instead of aiming to stimulate the creation of antibodies, they are focusing on cell-mediated immunity. Their approach is to modify MVA, a variety of “the virus used for decades as a smallpox vaccine”, which must be a reference to vaccinia, in order to create M2 as a whole.

http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090821/FRONTIERS/708209874/1036

Review: SMALLPOX: THE DEATH OF A DISEASE - D.A. Henderson, M.D.

2009-09-13T22:33:00.000-07:00

After reading several other books that explore smallpox eradication, Henderson’s account appears more in-depth and personal. It places the reader in the situation, its stresses and successes. The reality of the narrative is supported by both strong personal biases and fast-paced anecdotes. The bias is shown in dark portrayals of bureaucratic figures that were shown to impede progress instead of assisting eradication. Henderson writes with strong, liberal voice that is true to life. He is blunt and decisive, and this is reflected in the text.

The anecdotal clippings that are boxed and scattered in the book depict unique struggles and solutions of the eradication campaign. Cultural and environmental barriers of the campaign are exposed in the brief accounts. “A novel way to detect hidden cases” is one example of an unusual solution; in order to reveal denied cases of smallpox, a vehicle was driven into deep mud to interest infected villagers, bringing them out of their homes.

Henderson also emphasizes the need for rule-breaking. He boldly suggests that certain conditions require radical action. His assertions are projected by scenarios and are proven valid by the ultimate success achieved by Henderson and other members of the campaign to bring the death of a disease.

I see the light!

2009-09-13T22:29:00.000-07:00

......Everything is more exciting when followed by an exclamation point, don't you think?

Here's the first thing you should know --> Tuesday's speaker, Dr. Dan DiGiulio, helped write a blurb on PubMed titled "Monkeypox: an emerging zoonosis." The blurb is only a paragraph long, and covers the basics: Human monkeypox is a zoonosis endemic to central and western Africa, and it was found not long ago in the United States. Monkeypox is difficult for the average person to distinguish from chickenpox, and it is the most impending orthopox virus threat to the human species. Therefore, beware of human monkeypox biological terrorism.

But that's not even the exiting part of this oh-so-exciting blog!

I decided to dig a little deeper into the concept of zoonosis and was quite thrilled by what I discovered. First off, yes, rabbits have their own special orthopox virus, rabbitpox! Because rabbitpox is so similar to monkeypox and smallpox, rabbits are now being used as a model through which to test modified vaccinia Ankara. Cool, right? (Minus the whole rabbits being euthanized at the end of the tests thing.)

Here comes the cool part....
After more searching I was not surprised to find that our favorite lab animal (aside from the macaque), the mouse, is being used for monkeypox testing. According to a PubMed article whose url is posted at the bottom of this blog,
"Using viruses from the Congo (MPXV-2003-Congo-358) and West African (MPXV-2003-USA-044) clades, we constructed recombinant viruses that express the luciferase gene (MPXV-Congo/Luc+and MPXV-USA-Luc+) and compared their viral infection in mice by biophotonic imaging."

What is biophotonic imaging, you ask? It is probably the most awesome thing ever. According to the second url posted at the bottom of this blog,
"BPI allows biological processes, including gene expression that is both temporal and spatially defined, to be monitored longitudinally in live animals in real-time and non-invasively (1-3). The principle of BPI is that light (especially that above 600 nm, red light) passes through tissue at depth (up to several centimetres) and can be detected from outside of a live animal (4-6). To utilize this process, genes encoding specific photon emitting proteins (luciferase or fluorescent proteins) are engineered into viruses, cells (bacteria, fungi and cancer cell lines), protozoa and animals (mice and rats) enabling them to emit light that can be visualised through the tissues of a live subject using specialized imaging equipment (Figure 1). "
The proteins glow!!!! (...now you see why the title of this blog makes sense)
Thanks to this incredible technology, researchers managed to discover that certain strains of monkeypox targeted the abdomen, particularly the ovary, and after 24 hours spread elsewhere in the monkey's body.

Here is an example of biophotonic imaging....

-
www.pnas.org/content/104/42/16669/F2.large.jpg

Mice Testing
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19668372?ordinalpos=6&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DefaultReportPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum

Biophotonic imaging
http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/news.asp?id=111

REVIEW: Plagues and Peoples by William H. McNeill

2009-09-13T21:59:00.000-07:00

“Plagues and Peoples” by William H. McNeil presents an alternate argument about the mechanisms that shaped our society. He argues that plagues and epidemics, often overlooked by critical historians as exaggerated events, had fundamental effects on the development of society.

William H McNeil begins by presenting an interesting view on parasitism by creating and exploring subdivisions in this classification. Microparasites refer, as expected, to infectious pathogens that cause disease. He describes the way of life in some human communities as an example of modulated macroparitism, where a conqueror became a parasite on those who produced food. New diseases and new epidemics arose and increased in prevalence as human behavior changed and transportation increased. Thus pathogens evolved along with the progress of mankind.

William McNeil makes several other interesting postulations. He elaborates on the role that smallpox and measles played in not only eliminating Aztec populations but also their culture and civilization. He moreover proposes that the endemic disease found in sub-tropic India protected their culture from becoming engulfed in the Aryan culture. This he suggests resulted in the hierarchal parallel caste system typified in modern day India.

A major criticism of “Plagues and Peoples” is that there is a lack of factual information. Although William McNeil puts forth many interesting interpretations and theories they are not often backed with facts or data. While there has been significant research into the effect of disease in the Western World and China, this is not the case for areas such as the Middle East and Africa. Often, as he admits himself, there is little information about these areas and it is unlikely that further relevant data will emerge.

This however, does not detract from the importance of the book. This alternate viewpoint on human history provides a framework for further research and investigation. Although many of his theories for the development of Civilization may prove incomplete or inaccurate, William McNeil has opened our eyes to an entirely distinct historical perspective

Matthew Goodyear

Testing for the (immunocompromised) soon-to-be Mother

2009-09-13T20:00:00.001-07:00

The nine-month roller coaster ride for a pregnant mother has its highs and lows – of the sheer joy about the life forming within her womb, and the revulsion of an expanding spandex size. Another woe that may hit mothers is the threat of their immunocompromised situation should the H1N1 virus infect them. Of the deaths that have been reported since September 3, 2009, 6% of these fatalities are pregnant women. This group also experiences higher rates of hospitalization than the general population and as a CDC top priority, they will be on the shortlist to receive the 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine as soon as it becomes available.

The (oh-so-cool!) National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) is conducting clinical trials to ascertain the appropriate doses of vaccine needed to trigger immune response in pregnant women against the H1N1 virus. The study will enroll 120 women at medical research institutions nationwide.

http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/H1N1pregnanttrials.htm

MS Drug Tysabri Linked to Fatal Brain Disease

2009-09-13T12:02:00.000-07:00

How strange it is that something that exists in the vast majority of the people's bodies can cause a deadly and destructive disease. The JC virus affects almost 90% of the population. The virus is harmless to those who are not immunosuppressed. It "lies dormant in the kidneys and causes no problems" according to Harvard Medical School and the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center representatives who conducted a study of 19 MS patients taking Tysabri. The study reveals that using Tysabri, a drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, affects T-cells and can lead to a fatal brain condition.

The JC virus infiltrated blood cells on 60% (13) of patients after 18 months and spread to the brain, causing PML, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, a rare condition where the myelin covering nerves becomes damaged in the the white matter. The study shows heightened levels of the virus in the patients' blood and urine. Conditions like AIDS also correlate with the likelihood of PML: 4% of AIDS patients are debilitated by PML.

In 2005, the FDA had ordered Tysabri to be taken off the market because of its link to PML. MS patients objected profusely, citing no direct link and no surefire way to measure the susceptibility to PML in patients. They lobbied successfully and the drug was reintroduced onto the market.

This reminds me of our discussion in class about the qualities of a perfect drug or vaccine. Unfortunately, some of the most effective treatments are laden with damaging side effects. I am interested in seeing what causes some viruses to awaken and attack the cells, and what keeps them in check without this drug's interaction.

Making the Hajj

2009-09-13T00:59:00.000-07:00

For Muslims making the Hajj, the pilgrimage is an experience of intense spiritual renewal. With the preparations that come beforehand, including international travel, moral cleansing, and mental preparation for the events of religious fervor, another item has been added to that checklist: Vaccination.

Muslim pilgrims making the trip to Mecca for Hajj will be facing more healthcare regulations as the Saudi Arabia government introduced visa requirements in response to the H1N1 pandemic.

In the United Kingdom, the National Travel Health Network and Centre, Department of Health, and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office created a leaflet to inform their traveling pilgrims of the new protocols. Pilgrims to Saudi Arabia will be required to have received vaccination against the coming year’s seasonal influenza. Also, the Saudi government has adopted protocol for vaccination against pandemic H1N1, although they realize these expectations will probably not be met for this upcoming year’s pilgrimage. This year’s Hajj will occur November 25–29.

http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news3609.htm#fatduck

Emerging Parasite (Into Humans): Another Malaria Parasite that Can Infect Humans

2009-09-11T14:36:00.001-07:00

There is a new bug in town. Well, its not so much new as different. And well, its been around, mostly in monkeys, specifically macaques, but now it has proven to be deadly in humans. You might call it a cousin of another bug that causes a very familiar disease: malaria. This one is called plasmodium knowlesi. The one we’re all familiar to, which is the most deadly and is responsible for most of the malaria cases in Africa is called plasmodium falciparum. There are actually three more cousins(species) of malaria parasite: plasmodium malariae, plasmodium ovale and plasmodium vivax which are usually has less serious symptoms and not fatal in humans.

The reason p. knowlesi is raising eye right now is because rather than just infected macaques that are found in South East Asian rainforests, it has infected and killed some patients. Unfortunately, it is easily confused with p. malariae under the microscope and might have been dismissed as not been serious, which it actually wasn’t at first. But one thing about it is different: it is capable of reproducing every 24 hours in the blood, meaning that it is potentially lethal. Researchers at the University of Malaysia Sarawak tested over found 150 patients in a Malaysian hospital between July 2006 and January 2008 and found that this cousin is responsible for two-thirds of the infections. Most patients recovered after being easily treated with drugs such as chloroquine or primaquine but one in ten patients has complications such as difficulty breathing or kidney problems and two died. With a fatality rate of 2% it is just as deadly as p. falciparum malaria; remember that the problem with malaria is not necessarily the death rate but the poor conditions of the people who have it.

Also something else is interesting: researchers says that all patients of p. knowlesi malaria have a low platelet count as opposed to other types of malaria which could lead to excessive bleeding or problems with blood clotting but none have occurred yet. An expert at Oxford says that this new information disproves the theory that malaria does not jump from species to species and wonders how p. knowlesi with contribute to future cases of malaria.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8246063.stm

The CDC website before has a lot of information on malaria include the number of US outbreaks. I didn’t know that there were still malaria outbreaks in the US, may you didn’t either? Take a look!

http://www.cdc.gov/Malaria/facts.htm

China releases H1N1 vaccine unsure of it efficacy

2009-09-11T01:04:00.001-07:00

Following up on the topic of diluting vaccine and the debate surrounding it in the simulation, China seems to be facing a similar dilemma today. China’s Health Ministry has just released a A/H1N1 vaccine despite expert concerns about efficacy and safety. It plans to conduct a free inoculation program that will serve 1.8 million residents and last until October 31. China currently has about 5,592 cases with H1N1 virus with no deaths. The vaccine that China has released has not been tested according to normal protocol. Researchers have only conducted clinical trials for 3 months, when trials typically last several years. The key concern is that there will be serious side effects from the vaccine which have yet to surface in the clinical trials. However, the Health Ministry believes that this risk minimal compared to the risk of the H1N1 flu and that the public will benefit more from the vaccine. Health officials intend to keep a close watch for any complications post-vaccination.

Is it ethical to release a vaccine if the severity of its side effects are unknown? Does distributing a vaccine that may be entirely ineffective give the public a dangerous false sense of security? As we saw today in the simulation, there is no clear answer to these questions. Hopefully, China has made “the right” decision in this specific case. Only time will tell.

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-09/10/content_12032000.htm

Review of Smallpox: The Death of a Disease

2009-09-11T00:13:00.000-07:00

D. A. Henderson’s account of eradicating one of the world’s most lethal diseases, Smallpox: The Death of a Disease, is exactly what it is advertised as—“The Inside Story of Eradicating a Worldwide Killer.” Looking back on his experience as the director of the World Health Organization’s campaign to rid the earth of smallpox, Henderson relates his account of the eradication campaign.

Smallpox: The Death of a Disease provides a good but general overview of the disease itself and post-eradication concerns such as bioterrorism; but the greatest strength of Henderson’s tale lies in the fantastic detail of the technology and policy that eradicated smallpox. An interesting read for those interested in history, politics, and healthcare, Smallpox: The Death of A Disease maps out the first and only blueprint for infectious disease eradication policy, as Henderson painstakingly covers the challenges that the eradication team experienced in each area.

Open, and earnest (though at times abrasive, particularly when dealing with WHO Director-General Candou, the Somalian government, and various others), the only major fault I have with Henderson is his purportedly inaccurate depiction of himself. Henderson repeatedly portrays himself smoothly untangling messes with bureaucracies, however, in an interview with eradication veteran Dr. Don Francis, I learned that Henderson’s plans didn’t always go as well as he implies.

A minor fault in Smallpox: The Death of a Disease is self-contradiction. The entire purpose of the books seems to be to describe the eradication of smallpox so that it can be used a lesson to the eradicate other diseases, however, Henderson concludes the book with the belief that eradication of any other disease is impossible. A second minor fault is the lack of literary ability in the book; Henderson, while incredibly competent in many areas, is simply not an author by training. Despite these weaknesses, I thoroughly enjoyed Smallpox: The Death of a Disease and believe that it provides much-needed information and policy used in Henderson’s great feat—the eradication of smallpox.

Diluting the Smallpox Vaccine

2009-09-10T22:59:00.000-07:00

Considering this was such a big issue in our 'atlantic storm' simulation, I thought it would be appropriate to investigate the study. It turns out that it is possible to dilute the vaccine by a ration of 10:1 and still record just as high a percentage of 'takes'. Guess the Prime Minister of England was a bit ignorant of the facts.....

In March 2002 HHS Secretary Tommy G Thompson announced that the exisiting U.S. supply of smallpox vaccine -15.4 million doses could successfully be diluted over five times and retain its potency, expanding the number of individuals it could protect from the contagious disease.

The trial compared the full strength vaccine with fivefold, as well as tenfold, dilutions in 680 young adults with no history of smallpox vaccination. 97% of all participants registered a take.

Participants were assigned at random to one of three groups: 106 received undiluted vaccine, 234 recieved a 1:5 dilution, and 340 received a 1:10 dilution.

After one or two vaccinations, the investigators found no significant difference in the take rate of the three doses: 97 percent of volunteers who received undiluted vaccine had a take compared with 100 percent of those receiving the 1:5 dilution and 98 percent of those receiving the 1:10 dilution.

So perhaps we should have diluted the vaccine, although it has never been tested via the Jenner Method. A take may not necessarily mean long term protection against smallpox

Matthew Goodyear

Induced Coma Saves Life of Rabies Victim

2009-09-10T21:36:00.000-07:00

Rabies is an infectious disease that, in the past, killed one hundred percent of its unvaccinated victims. Transmitted through animals, the rabies virus kills by interfering with the body’s critical functions, such including respiration, swallowing, and heart rate. In the past, no rabies patients have survived without immediate introduction of rabies antibodies.

Until Jenna Giese. In 2005, the then fifteen year old was bitten by a rabid bat, but did not report the incident until she experienced symptoms a month later. By that time, it was too late to administer the rabies vaccine, and experimental medicine was the only option doctors had left. Dr. Rodney Willoughby, noticing that rabies does not usually cause permanent brain damage but rather kills by temporarily stopping the brain’s ability to run vital functions, induced a coma in Jenna with various drugs.

Jenna woke from her coma as the first unvaccinated rabies survivor, and now suffers only from and unsteady gait and slurred speech. The same induced coma therapy has been tried on all other applicable cases, but because there are not that many opportunities to test the treatment, the medical community has not decided if it is indeed a cure for rabies. Positive results with two other patients, however, gives hope that this may be a legitimate treatment. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/352/24/2508

Thoughts about Atlantic Storm

2009-09-10T21:29:00.001-07:00

First off, I want to thank all our amazing SCA's for arranging the exercise today. It was absolutely incredible and one of the best academic experiences I have ever had. I especially liked the intense music that set the tone for the whole day. And I think it goes without saying that having the coffee and treats was invaluable to all of us. : p

I looked at a few articles regarding the real Atlantic Storm, and I became increasingly impressed with our work today. Despite the fact that we went in and out of character as the day went on, we came to most all of the same conclusions that Madeleine Albright and the other politicians came to after the real exercise. One of the things Madeleine Albright was:

"The political situation in the United States, no matter who is in office, is in the context of what has happened in the last four years. It is very hard not to consider what the issues are, what our relationship is with other countries."

I definitely learned this when attempting, as Germany, to communicate with all the other countries represented; Polland, especially. (No hard feelings, Tina!?) It is tough to say what our countries would do in the situation at hand today. However, as Madeleine Albright said in the short documentary today, the leaders of each country are obligated to protect his or her own citizens. There is no getting around that.

I guess the biggest thing I learned today is that we are going to be pretty screwed if there is a biological attack. We need to stockpile more vaccines and take the threat of biological warfare seriously.

..........geeez. Being a world leader must be hard......

Biohazard

2009-09-10T21:18:00.001-07:00

I could not put this book down. It was terrifying, exciting, and put a new spin on medicine and politics that I had never thought of. While there is quite a bit of speculation regarding the truth of the events chronicled in this book, it was all very real to me. Despite Alibek’s exaggerations, the basis of this book is still entirely true.

One of the things that really struck me was how human everyone was in the book. In the past when I thought about any menaces in our world, they seemed inhuman and much like comic book villains. Biohazard brings these villains into real life. They are not only across the world, but they could be in the nice families down the street. I could not stop looking at one of the pictures in Alibek’s book, which proved this point. It was a picture of what appeared to be fun-loving families at a neighborhood event, but underneath the picture was a caption informing the reader that these bright, smiling faces, were those of anthrax weapons producers and their children. They seemed perfectly normal, yet they participated in a program that could potentially wipe out the human population.

I would recommend this book to anyone who enjoys a great read, but who has a strong stomach. This book reveals the truth that we are all just pawns in a game of politics and the struggle for world power; a struggle in which most every country is involved, including our beloved, safe haven: the United States of America.

The Diseases are all Connected!

2009-09-09T22:56:00.000-07:00

Here is a really cool article from the New York Times called Mapping the human 'Diseasome.' It's not really an article, rather, a map showing how different diseases are connected by the genes they have in common. Some of these diseases include deafness, obesity, leukemia, colon cancer, cardiomyopathy, and much more. If you're super interested in genes...or not...you should definitely look at this. It's way awesome.

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/05/05/science/20080506_DISEASE.html?ref=health

AIDS Vaccines

2009-09-09T15:59:00.000-07:00

Article in The Economist this week on AIDS vaccines research and a new project out of South San Francisco (not GSID, as it turns out...but close!):

http://www.economist.com/sciencetechnology/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14350119

A

Review: The Demon in the Freezer

2009-09-09T13:46:00.000-07:00

Before reading The Demon in the Freezer, I was not aware of the extent to which science has gone in the effort to weaponize biological agents. It was astounding to learn about the perversion of biological science , of transforming epidemic disease into a weapon. Preston provided a comprehensive overview of the history of biological weapons programs in the Soviet Union, of the international smallpox eradication program, and of the recent bioterror scares involving anthrax. Yet in attempting to cover so much historical, topical, and geographic ground, The Demon in the Freezer can feel chaotic at times. Jumping from a young researcher's accident with ebola virus to an island in Bangladesh forty years previously, it is occasionally difficult to divine a cohesive theme from Preston's book, or to process the immense variety of information he provides. On the other hand, personally profiling each of the individuals-- smallpox victims, doctors, and scientists-- helps to paint a picture of this devastating disease in a way that no medical textbook could. Preston brings frightening epidemic diseases back into the public consciousness, explaining their pathology and the widescale social and political impacts faced by those who decide to harness them as weapons. Richard Preston's book should be commended for bringing a comprehensible survey of recent epidemiology to the public. It is an entertaining, sometimes terrifying novel that provides a human face to the specter of biological weapons.

Poxvirus Proteins

2009-09-09T10:20:00.000-07:00

Earlier this year, Junpeng Deng of the Oklahoma State University discovered the crystal structure of the poxvirus protein, providing insight into how different proteins within the immune system can communicate with one another.

Researchers consider this discovery rather crucial because of the potential to block communication between the proteins and the virus molecules, ultimately preventing or even curing the virus from the host. Deng's next project is to create a drug that can create this interference between proteins in a number of different viruses to help prevent infection.

He also has an extra $1.34 million in grant money. Pretty good deal.

http://hex.io/1gvp

Review: PLAGUES AND PEOPLES - W.H. McNeill

2009-09-09T10:07:00.000-07:00

McNeill writes in an interesting and engaging style that is sometimes difficult to find in newer scientific texts. The weight of the argument is obvious, so that the reader cannot take lightly this unusual approach to history. McNeill proposes the existence of parallel equilibria in the biological world that are historically constant. For example: “Ever since language allowed human cultural evolution to impinge upon age-old processes of biological evolution, humankind has been in a position to upset older balances of nature in quite the same way that disease upsets the natural balances within a host’s body.” Discussion of balances on macro and micro scale is original and provokes reconsideration of our place in the world. Similarly, it provides a better picture of microorganismal niches.

In regards to the role of the microorganism, Plagues and Peoples represents a perspective of the time prior to the eradication of smallpox. This perspective is slowly drifting into the slipstream of history, though it is critical to retain it in order to fully comprehend the gravity of the eradication and to realize opportunities of the future. Reading is highly recommended for all those who have not lived with the terror of the world’s greatest scourge, without the knowledge of humankind’s ability to evade the ravages of such disease.

Dangers and Risks of Drug Development

2009-09-08T22:44:00.000-07:00

During the lecture today (Tuesday) we discussed the development of drugs to target viruses, in particular smallpox. We learnt about toxicity and efficacy curves, the horizontal distance between the two curves at varying doses determining the therapeutic index. The danger and toxicity of certain drugs is well demonstrated by the failure of TGN1412 in the first phase of clinical trials.

This was a huge scandal in the UK. In its first human clinical trials, in March 2006, it caused catastrophic systemic organ failure in the subjects, despite being administered at a supposed sub-clinical dose of 0.1 mg per kg, some 500 times lower than the dose found safe in animals. All six volunteers were hospitalized, with four suffering from multiple organ dysfunction, and one volunteer showed signs of developing cancer. The responsible company TeGenero Immuno Therapeutics, entered into insolvency as a result.

Each of the men were paid over $3000 to participate in the trial, and six were administrated with 1/500th of the dose deemed safe in animals, the other two receiving a placebo (lucky)

TGN1412 is the name of an immunomodulatory drug which was withdrawn from development, originally intended for the treatment of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia and rheumatoid arthritis. It is a humanised monoclonal antibody that not only binds to, but is a strong agonist for, the CD28 receptor of the immune system's T cells. The in vitro (in test tube) and in vivo data from animal studies suggested that administration would lead to preferential activation of regulatory T cells, leading to a net effect of T cell down regulation.

Instead the TGN1412 instead caused the release of a cytotoxic storm only hours after adminstration, akin to the effects of the complement cascade in severe allergic reaction. None of the patients died, although they have been warned that they now face "a lifetime of contracting cancers and all the various auto-immune diseases from lupus to MS, from Rheumatoid arthritis (what it was supposed to treat) to ME".

This however could have happened to almost any researcher or drug development. There has been a lot of criticism about the failure to predict this action, with a scientist in hindsight claiming "You don't need to be a rocket scientist to work out what will happen if you non-specifically activate every T cell in the body". The MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency) however, stated that they found no deficiencies in TeGenero's preclinical work; there was no evidence of undisclosed studies.

Each of the men were paid over $3000 to participate in the trial, and six were administrated with 1/500th of the dose deemed safe in animals, the other two receiving a placebo (lucky)

Think twice before doing clinical studies.....Josh

Matthew Goodyear

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGN1412

To Vaccinate or Not to Vaccinate, Cost is the Question

2009-09-08T21:52:00.001-07:00

We've been talking a lot about vaccinations the last few days, especially developing new vaccines for H1N1 and potentially HIV. The article I found, however, talks about how some physicians are administering fewer vaccines now than in the recent past. As is so often the case, this phenomenon is largely the result of high costs that private practice doctors experience when administering vaccines. Simply put, vaccines are not profitable for these physicians. The costs for a physician to obtain, store and administer a vaccine are not completely covered by the doctor's insurance. While many insurers cover the complete cost of buying the vaccine, physicians typically end up paying 17 to 28% above the cost of the vaccine itself in storage and administration costs.

This trend is troubling because it means that many children may go without standard vaccines like measles, mumps and rubella or chickenpox. Experts point to the period between 1989 and 1991, when vaccination was also cutback due to costs, as a potential and scary example of what could occur now. In that period, MMR vaccine administration fell, resulting in "55, 000 cases of measles, 11,000 hospitalizations and 123 toddler deaths."

While it remains uncertain how widespread the cutbacks will be, (a recent survey estimated that "5% of pediatricians and 11% of physicians indicated that they're seriously considering no longer offering immunizations"), the potential effect on public health is worrisome. Preventive medicine is clearly preferable to therapeutic treatment, but this trend away from vaccination may put an even larger burden on hospital based, reactionary care. This trend also highlights the importance of economics in healthcare, whether it is drug makers or private practice physicians, everything seems to end up being about costs.

http://money.cnn.com/2009/09/08/news/economy/health_care_vaccinations/index.htm

New Research on XMRV Virus & Prostate Cancer

2009-09-08T21:09:00.000-07:00

XMRV (Xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus) has previously just been know for causing leukemia and sarcoma in animals. There has been no proof of any effect in humans until now. A study from the University of Utah found evidence that this retrovirus may cause prostrate cancer in humans. If XMRV does indeed contribute to cancer, it would join the few viruses we discussed in class, like Human Papilloma Virus, that cause cancer.

Researchers identified 27% of the 200 subjects with prostate cancer had the virus, and those with the more "aggressive tumors" had it. The virus is somewhat baffling because of it appears to thrive in the presence of testosterone. Yet, in reading about the study, one is frequently reminded that correlation does not equal causation, and still more research needs to be done to prove the exact relation of XMRV to prostate cancers.

Future studies aim to see if the virus can be sexually transmitted and what the effects are for women. If XMRV does prove to cause cancer, scientists can work toward a vaccine against the virus, which may palliate one of the most common cancers among American men (second only to skin cancer).

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/6151243/Virus-could-trigger-some-cases-of-prostate-cancer.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8241835.stm http://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/news/20090908/virus-linked-to-prostate-cancer

Salmonella and Cancer Don't Get Along

2009-09-08T19:28:00.000-07:00

Researchers in Germany found that various types of bacteria like salmonella can migrate into cancer tumors, making it easier get rid of them.

When the body recognizes salmonella, its initial response is to release a messenger called tumor necrosis factor, or TNF-alpha. This messenger causes an inflammatory reaction in the blood vessels and causes them to become more permeable, including those of the tumor. Researchers hope to use this phenomenon to allow salmonella bacteria to enter into the tumor and assist in attacking it.

Salmonella, which can survive in even the most anaerobic environments like a tumor, has always been known to be generally bad friends with cancer. Previously, this method was not preferred because the risk of infection from actual salmonella was too high. Now, however, researchers hope to develop a strain of the bacteria to specifically permeate into and attack the tumor, which would be especially useful in treating cancers that are untouchable by usual chemotherapy.

Treating cancer with salmonella. Oh, the dramatic irony.

Caption: Salmonella (green) trespassing into a tumor (blue and purple).

http://hex.io/1gt6

New Therapy to Treat/Prevent HIV

2009-09-08T17:24:00.001-07:00

Gene therapy has become one of the most researched fields with the future potential of becoming the most common therapy used to treat people with all kinds of diseases. It is no different for HIV treatment. Among all the HIV-AIDS related research going on in all areas, one of the most important is gene therapy. Researchers at UC-Davis have found a new type of gene therapy that might alleviate or even prevent the effects of HIV. In current gene therapy methods, stem cells are removed from the blood or bone marrow and genetically altered to produce HIV-resistant CD-4s and are then reintroduced into a person. However, it is necessary to destroy all the CD-4 producing cells in the body are already infected or are at risk, a highly toxic and dangerous procedure. CD-4 are immune system Tcells that produce the receptor CCR5 which the HIV virus uses in order to enter the cell (see above picture).

Luckily researchers at UC-Davis have created a hybrid gene delivery device, a vector, that does not require the removal of cells from the body. In so doing, they took interfering RNA, a natural gene splicing molecule that interferes with gene expression, inserted it into an emptied Sindbis virus (an arbovirus of the togaviridiae family that causes sindbis fever, see left) and attached monoclonal(monospecific) antibodies to the surface so that this vector would only interact with the immune system cells that need to be genetically altered.

This vector was tested in a series of experiments on mice in which they first had to prove that the vector would deliver the ingredients to the CD4 cells and inhibit their production of CCR5. In a second experiment, they injected the gene therapy into mice with immune cells and two weeks later, the CD4 cells in the mice no longer had CCR5 receptors and were very resistant to HIV infection.The therapy still has a long way to go in order to be tested in humans but so far so good!

http://www.aidsmeds.com/articles/hiv_gene_therapy_1667_17213.shtml

Review: ASSESSMENT OF FUTURE SCIENTIFIC NEEDS FOR LIVE VARIOLA VIRUS - IOM

2009-09-08T13:12:00.000-07:00

Thoroughly technical, the assessment is a valuable and accurate look at current and possible scientific capabilities that are made possible or assisted by the retention of live variola virus, the pathogen that causes smallpox. The assessment was composed under the direction to ignore all considerations except those scientific, which makes in unavoidable biased. However, despite the lack of criticism for retention of the stocks, the authors clearly press upon the reader the incomplete nature of the debate.

While the assessment is written fluently with technical language, an average reader is assisted by a historical and scientific overview of the virus. Many of the processes described are preceded by helpful explanations of relevant concepts. Exploration of reasons for retention is proportional to the development and potential of each scientific application. For example, extensive discussion of the immune response correlates to the possibility of using variola pathogenesis to glean a more complete understanding of the human immune system.

The bias is also reduced by passages confirming the limited number of research and development opportunities that rely on variola retention. A chart found at the conclusion of the assessment is demonstrative—use of live variola virus in a number of research areas is noted most often as “helpful” rather than necessary.

The most appreciable element of the assessment is that it does not fail to provide the whys. The committee has not only presented the facts behind the argument for retention but also how they have been determined.

Satellite Images Used to predict Infectious Diseases

2009-09-08T00:44:00.000-07:00

The future of infectious disease prevention may lie in satellite imaging. There is on-going research aimed at tracking environmental and climate changes and correlating those changes with disease outbreaks. Changes in environment often indicate migrations of disease carrying rodents and insects. Also, climate tracking can predict floods, which increase the risk of waterborne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, diarrhea and hepatitis. In vector-borne diseases such as malaria, the correlation becomes more complex because human behavior and ecological factors like predation pressure also play a role. So far, researchers have had some success in tracing environmental and climate changes surrounding Hantavirus Pulmonary Disease, particularly the 1993 outbreak in the U.S. On- site information (or ground truthing) will be key to future research in order to develop a reliable system of predicting disease outbreaks. Other factors to be considered include soil type, vegetation, soil moisture, and human behavioral patterns, among others. Therefore, satellite tracking would be only a fraction of the prediction process, but an important one nonetheless. Researchers hope that if they are able to predict outbreaks, public health officials can advise heightened practices of hygiene, sanitation and water filtration, simple but effective efforts. Much work is left to be done, but the research seems promising.

Viruses have fingerprints, too, you know.

2009-09-08T00:39:00.000-07:00

Researchers at the University of Georgia developed a new way to figure out whether that cough is just a simple case of the cold or the dreaded onset of something less desirable.

The process, in short, essentially involves sticking a swab up your nose and shooting lasers at the resultant virus-y product. Through enhanced surface Raman spectroscopy, the scattered light off of the DNA or RNA of the virus reveals what scientists call a molecular "fingerprint", unique to every mutation of most viruses. By a quick glance at the fingerprint, doctors can get a very accurate idea of what a patient might have within 60 seconds of collecting the swab sample.

Sweet!

http://hex.io/1gqq

Retroviruses at work causing cancer

2009-09-08T00:33:00.000-07:00

It was already been proven that certain viruses such as various strains of HPV, a papillomavirus, can lead to cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis and anus.

Researchers from the University of Utah and Columbia University medical schools found the XMRV (Xenotropic murine leukaemia virus-related virus) in 27% of the 200 cancerous prostates they looked at. Moreover it was associated with more aggressive tumours and found in only 6% of non-cancerous prostates. This becomes evan more suspicious considering that XMRV is known to cause leukaemia and other tumours in animals.

XMRV is a retrovirus and therefore inserts a copy of its own DNA into the chromosomes of a cell it infects. If this occurs next to a gene that regulates cell growth it can disrupt the normal development of the cell, possibly leading to unregulated cell growth and loss of cell Apoptosis resulting in a tumour. The virus has an androgen response element meaning its growth is stimulated by the presence of testosterone and possibly Oestrogen. If this can be proved then XMRV could have a role in causing other cancers.

If it turns out that XMRV does cause cancer, it may be possible to create a vaccine against the virus and thus greatly reduce the occurrence of certain cancers. However, this remains a theory in early stages of research, and the relationship between the presence of the virus and prostate cancer could just be a coincidental correlation.

We can only hope....

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8241835.stm

The Chinese Government's Concerns over H1N1

2009-09-07T20:31:00.000-07:00

While all countries hope to minimize the impact of H1N1 flu on their citizens, China is showing special concern as their National Day Celebration approaches on October 1. Government officials there realize that the flu situation will become more severe as fall progresses and intend to focus many of their prevention efforts on schools. In fact, in several provinces primary and secondary schools have been closed for several days after about 40 students contracted the flu there. Additionally, government officials urged transportation authorities to refine their epidemic emergency procedures in order to minimize the spread of the illness among those traveling throughout the country. Especially telling was the government's urging of public health officials to be ready to deal with outbreaks around National Day celebrations.

This article reminded me of Don Francis' comments about vaccination in North Korea. He noted that under such an authoritarian, organized regime, it was easy to vaccinate all of the children in the country in a short period of time. While China is more open than North Korea, power there is still highly centralized. With strict warnings to schools, health workers, and transportation officials, it is clear that the Chinese government is willing to exert its authority in potentially excessive ways in order to stop the spread of the illness, especially near the national holiday. How successful these measures are and whether they stop the spread of the flu in China will be interesting to see. Currently, China is reporting fewer than 5000 cases of the flu.

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-09/07/content_12011399.htm

H1N1 Potentially Profitable

2009-09-07T20:18:00.001-07:00

After studying virology for the last week and hearing from genuinely concerned people in eradication efforts, this Wall Street Journal article reminds me that there are people who may hope pandemics are widespread and dangerous. With the current H1N1 scare, it's interesting to see that some people may benefit economically, namely the makers and distributors of Tamiflu, Roche laboratories and drug chains. Analysts have estimated that a corporation like CVS stands to earn 4 to 8 cents more per share (some say more than 10 cents). Walgreens stands to gain 17 cents per share, but it depends on the severity of this second H1N1 wave.

With frightening statistics like 60 to 120 million expected to have symptomatic H1N1 and 30,000 to 90,000 deaths caused by it, it is no wonder that Tamiflu sales have increased, especially as school comes back in session. Drug stores are planning to partner with the state and federal government to create vaccination programs. The article also mentions possible economic boom from sales of hand sanitizer and other hygienic or preventative products.

This is an entirely different facet of disease than we have previously discussed in class or even read in the books. Leave it to the Wall Street Journal to write an article about disease and economic gain.

In relation to smallpox, does anyone know if Wyeth Pharmaceuticals made much profit from freeze-dried smallpox vaccine Dryvax, or if Dr. Benjamin Rubin lived an extravagant lifestyle off of the bifurcated needle? (I somehow doubt the latter.) I think it's interesting to consider. http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20090903-710543.html

The Power of Viruses!

2009-09-07T19:08:00.000-07:00

We learned in class today how rapidly viruses can mutate. Scientists have tapped into the potential of viruses and have biologically engineered them in order to make use of their mutations as power generators for more efficient and green batteries.

Lithium ions move between the anode and cathode inside our rechargeable lithium ion batteries. When iron phosphate, a material at the cathode, reacts with lithium, there is a high capacity to store energy. However, the movement of ions and electrons is relatively slow and hence, it is a poor conductor and makes the battery less efficient at releasing energy.

A lab team has experimented with ways to let “the virus do the work.” They worked with a biological template on the “nanoscale,” forming iron phosphate-coated viruses and carbon nanotubes that led to a highly conductive cathode in which electrons could more rapidly move through. In the near future, this means that viruses can be responsible for the rechargeable lithium ion batteries in our laptops, iPods, and cell phones!

To attempt your own at sifting through techy language, here is the article:

http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/42454/title/Viruses_could_power_devices

Background on human research ethics in disease study

2009-09-07T11:41:00.000-07:00

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was an observational study conducted by researchers for the US Public Health Service to observe the course of untreated syphilis. In 1932, 400 syphilitic black men from Macon County, Alabama were recruited to serve as participants. In addition to the questionable decision to study only black men in the pre-Civil Rights Era south, curative treatments such as penicillin were withheld from the participants throughout the course of the forty year study. In an era before informed consent was a standard of medical research, many of the men went blind, insane, or died as a direct result of their untreated syphilis, and some of them infected others. It was not until 1972, when word of the experiment reached the national press, that massive public outcry caused the study to be shut down. An investigatory commission declared the experiment “ethically unjustified”, particularly the choice to withhold treatment. Ethical standards for human subject research today are based on the principles set forth in the Belmont Report in 1979, whose code comes directly as a result of the Tuskegee study. Its three foremost principles to guide human subject research are “justice”, “beneficence”, and “respect for persons”—these all based on the ethical faults of Tuskegee.

Advancements in Microscopy

2009-09-07T11:35:00.001-07:00

IBM researchers have produced the first Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) with a carbon monoxide. This has enabled them to produce an image of a molecule, pentacene, which is an organic semiconductor. Some think this development is indicative of future successes with electronic design on an atomic level.

AFMs operate “like fingers reading Braille.” A microscopic tip is guided over the surface of a sample. The reading is formed by tip fluctuations, in what is called a “force-map.” In contrast, electron microscopes use particle beams of electrons to create an image. Although AFMs have existed since 1986, satisfactory imaging has not been possible until now. Readings were formerly disrupted by electrostatic and Van der Waals interactions between the AFM tips and samples. This issue was avoided by the attachment of a single carbon monoxide molecule to the AFM tip.

Unfortunately, this technique cannot be practiced in open air; it must be done in a very high level vacuum at an extremely low temperature (approx. 5 K). The technique also takes a long time (> 20hr. per scan). Additionally, the CO tip attachment does not apply to every sample. However, the petacene image represents a significant development in the field of microscopy and the possibility of breakthroughs in processing power and efficiency.

http://singularityhub.com/2009/09/01/microscope-sees-molecules-for-first-time/

Ring around the Rosie?

2009-09-07T00:11:00.000-07:00

Typically, the common nursery rhyme is associated with the bubonic plague that devastated Europe. However, there is another argument that the rhyme is a reference to smallpox. The entire rhyme is:

A ring around the rosie,

Pocket full of posies,

Ashes, Ashes!

We all fall down.

The “rosie” rash is apparently very uncommon in the bubonic plague, rather it might refer to the red rash that develops in the early stages of smallpox. “Pocket” seems to be a distortion of the old English word “pocke”, which is the singular version of pox. Furthermore, “posies” may be a distortion of the characteristic pus. The final two verses refer to death. Overall the rhyme reads, “ a red ring rash with a pocke full of pus. Everyone dies.” We cannot be completely sure of the true origin of the nursery rhyme, but this theory appears to be stronger than the “bubonic plague” theory. Even post eradication, smallpox may still live on even in today’s nursery rhymes.

Genetically Engineered Mosquitoes...

2009-09-06T23:37:00.000-07:00

We've mentioned Dengue Fever quite a bit in class, and so when I found this article I thought it was very interesting. It was written back in December, but the idea behind it is simply genius!

Dengue is quite a problem in a lot of areas, and is transmitted through mosquitoes. So one British biotech company has decided to create engineered mosquitoes to help fight Dengue. These engineered male mosquitoes would be created to go out into the world and breed with "wild" female mosquitoes, and because these male mosquitoes contain lethal genes, the offpsring would die young, preventing them from passing Dengue onto humans.

The simple idea that science has come thus far is amazing to me. If we have progressed so far as to actually be able to engineer mosquitoes to help fight disease, more progress is definitely on the way.

http://www.wired.com/science/planetearth/news/2008/01/gm_insects

Crying Blood

2009-09-06T23:13:00.000-07:00

Just like we talked about blood hemorrhaging in eyes, as I was searching around on the web I found this really interesting story about a teenage boy whose eyes began crying blood out of nowhere. Apparently, the bleeding stopped as soon as the boy arrived at the hospital, but began once again a few days later. This very rare condition is known as haemolacria. Doctors think that this could be linked to complications or even a tumor, but nothing is certain yet. I know this doesn't relate to smallpox, but I immediately thought of our class when I saw it!

http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/09/03/blood.tears.mystery/index.html

Japanese Encephalitis Outbreak in India

2009-09-06T22:25:00.000-07:00

After Don Francis talked about smallpox being eliminated in Uttar Pradesh, India in 1974, he mentioned how polio was proving to be incredibly difficult to eradicate now. He briefly touched on Japanese Encephalitis in India, which I had never heard of before. I found this link on the disease’s outbreak in India now, during monsoon season. The CDC describes Japanese encephalitis as a mosquito-caused infection whose vectors are birds and pigs, really only prominent in South Asian countries. Japanese encephalitis results in symptoms like paralysis, comatose, and death, especially in young children who are more likely to be affected. Because the Eastern districts of the Uttar Pradesh region are low-lying and more affected by the flooding, the most outbreak reports come from there. The article described the region as lacking in funding, sanitation, medical staff, and vaccines. Japanese Encephalitis does not have a cure but is entirely preventable with vaccine.

Already 200 children have died and an estimated 900 have been infected. I find particularly interesting how little we hear about it compared to the press covering H1N1. The sad truth was that I didn’t even recognize the name Japanese Encephalitis and wouldn’t have found out about this almost yearly debacle without Don Francis mentioning it.

I have taken for granted that eradication efforts can be successful, if difficult, in these areas. With an already existent, effective vaccine, I think that it could be possible and more successful than malaria eradication efforts. The BBC article also describes the vaccination effort as incredibly difficult due to bureaucratic “red tape,” inaccurate reporting, and the demanding import of vaccines from China. I just think it’s a pity that Japanese Encephalitis doesn’t get more coverage and affects Indian children every year.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8217453.stm
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/jencephalitis/qa.htm

Concerns with an Inappropriate Military Vaccination

2009-09-06T19:46:00.000-07:00

After talking last week about the risks of smallpox immunization in the military, and hearing about the vaccinated soldier who experienced adverse reactions to the vaccine and is not being given any benefits, I was interested in the issue.

The article I found, http://bit.ly/2RXAKG, tells how a soldier’s two-year old son experienced a life-threatening reaction when he came in contact with his recently vaccinated father. The boy had eczema, which causes the adverse reaction. The story highlights two aspects of the ordeal that I found troubling. First, that the soldier was vaccinated for smallpox in the first place, when military protocol specifically stated that soldiers with household contacts with eczema should not be immunized. There was obviously a glitch in the army’s organizational system that is inexcusable when it causes lives to be threatened. Second, the inefficient response from the army and health workers alike to a disease that showed all the symptoms of smallpox would have been ineffective had the boy actually been the first case from a bioterror attack. The article as a whole shows the need to revamp the army and health system’s ability to provide adequate healthcare in times of peace and in the event of a bioterror emergency.

Regulating the Sale of Dangerous Genes

2009-09-06T19:31:00.000-07:00

One of the increasingly important issues for bioterrorism is monitoring and screening dangerous genes and toxins sold through biotech companies in the gene-synthesis industry. There is currently debate within this industry over what form such regulation should take. One group based in Europe, The International Association of Synthetic Biology (IASB), proposes gene-screening standards. IASB wants both an automated step, in which requested genes are compared to a database of potentially hazardous genes, and those with too many commonalities are flagged, and a human step in which potentially dangerous matches are evaluated by an expert. However, two companies, including one based in Menlo Park, propose only having the automated step, eliminating human verification.

This proposal worries many in the industry because some genes that are potentially dangerous may not appear in the database and because developments in gene splicing may create new dangers that are not reflected in the computer database. Of greatest concern for the companies is cost; having human verification as well as automated verification would require more money. If several companies adopt only the automated verification, the industry as a whole would tend toward this "lowest common denominator" of regulation in order for their prices to stay competitive.

The issue will be resolved in November when the IASB will meet to discuss adopting an industry wide code of conduct. It is hoped that the US government, which has been studying possible codes of conduct, will offer an opinion that will help guide the proceedings. Human verification would likely be more effective than a computer database alone, but any industry wide code of conduct seems reassuring that dangerous genes cannot be purchased as easily by just anyone.

http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090831/full/461022a.html

HIV-1 Resistance from Smallpox?

2009-09-06T19:11:00.001-07:00

There is speculation in the scientific community that the smallpox virus selectively pressured a gene (encoding receptor CCR5) to evolve and mutate, thus creating resistance to HIV-1 infection. HIV-1 requires two cellular proteins, the receptor CD4, and a co-receptor, either CXCR4 or CCR5, in order to enter lymphocytes. People who have a mutation in the gene encoding CCR5, known as delta 32, are resistant to HIV-1 infection.

Ten percent of humans possess the CCR5 delta 32 deletion, yet HIV-1 only recently began to infect humans, when it crossed from chimpanzees in 1930. Therefore, it cannot be HIV itself that selected for the gene mutation. What then, could account for the selection pressure?

Professor Racaniello of Columbia University posits that the evolution of the CCR5 delta 32 deletion is actually due to the smallpox virus, which has been plaguing the world since before 1000 AD. Myxoma virus (a poxvirus) is highly fatal in rabbits; however, cells that cannot be infected by this virus can be made susceptible to infection by expression of genes encoding various chemokine receptors, including CCR5. Effectively, this shows that CCR5 is an entry receptor for myxoma virus, and Racaniello suspects that it may be for the related smallpox virus as well. If so, Racaniello believes that smallpox is the most likely cause of the selective pressure responsible for fixation of the CCR5 delta 32 HIV-1 resistance allele.

See http://www.virology.ws/2009/02/20/hiv-1/ for more info.

Mass Inoculation As Solution to Flu protection

2009-09-06T13:25:00.000-07:00

Mass vaccination. Herd immunity. Sound familiar? Long lines, kids crying and a basket full of lollipops and off course a lot of syringes.
Officials in Massachussets are considering returning to the old days when mass vaccination campaigns required that all kids get vaccinated and they became part of the routine at school. With the number of H1N1 outbreaks projected to rise this year especially with the opening of schools, officials seem to have no other choice if they want the disease to stop spreading more than it already has. Unfortunately the vaccines won't be available until November, meaning that many kids will get the virus in the coming months. In addition to H1N1, officials are also looking to bring vaccinations for the regular flu into schools, to do as much as then can to curb the spread of the virus.

http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2009/09/06/health_officials_look_to_contain_h1n1_virus_by_inoculating_students/

How does the smallpox virus interact with DNA?

2009-09-05T14:41:00.000-07:00

This article is slightly dated, it was written in august 2006 but it demonstrates an important discovery with regards to a new smallpox vaccine and potential treatment.

Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have determined the structure of an important smallpox virus enzyme and how it binds to DNA. The enzyme called a Topoisomerase is an important drug target for coming up with new ways to fight smallpox

As poxviruses do not take over the genetic machinery inside the nucleus of the host cell they instead encode many of the enzymes they need to replicate their own genes and thus reproduce. Topoisomerase is used by the virus to relieve the excessive twisting of DNA strands that normally occurs during DNA replication and transcription of the viral genes.

Unlike the closely related human enzyme, the viral form only binds to specific DNA sequences. Thus it is more likely to develop inhibitors that are specific to the viral form of the enzyme.

In the case of smallpox virus, the hope is that drugs targeted to the viral topoisomerase will prevent viral replication by stabilizing the broken DNA in the intermediate form, thereby killing the smallpox virus.

Matthew Goodyear